MicroRNAs (miRNAs) regulate the expression of messenger RNAs, which in turn regulate the development of cancer cells. In addition, miRNAs can be used as biomarkers for cancer. Targeted therapies in cancer aim to inhibit specific molecular targets responsible for enhanced tumour growth. miRNAs can modulate this process of targeted therapy drugs.

Under GAAs, microglia are activated towards M1 (pro-inflammatory) phenotype through direct and indirect ways. Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation induce neuronal death, synaptic loss and dysmyelination in developing brain, which might be a key mechanism of neurocognitive deficits during neurodevelopment.

This figure comprehensively illustrates the key mechanisms, combination therapy strategies and current challenges in cancer immunotherapy. Panel (A) represents the core mechanisms, showing the interaction between T cell activation and immune checkpoint inhibition; panel (B) illustrates combination therapy strategies, emphasising the potential for different therapies to work together and panel (C) focuses on the challenges facing immunotherapy, proposing future research directions and solutions.

1. The application of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) constitution in diagnosing frailty holds significant value.
2. Frailty is independently associated with Qi deficiency, phlegm dampness, blood stasis and Qi depression.
3. Frailty patients with these TCM constitution usually exhibited poorer physical performance, lower bone density, higher fasting blood glucose, increased levels of plasma inflammatory factors and lymphogenesis-related factors.

Alcohol metabolism triggers the production of reactive oxygen species, acetaldehyde and other harmful metabolites, causing DNA damage, thus exacerbating the risk of developing oesophageal cancers.

Non-invasive biomarkers (miRNAs and lncRNAs) and advanced endoscopy are critical for early detection of oesophageal cancers.

For advanced stages, immunotherapies, particularly immune checkpoint inhibitors targeting PD-1, PD-L1, and CTLA-4, can improve cancer survival rate.

Chronic alcohol consumption leads to disruption of the oesophageal lining, increased cytokine production, oxidative stress, and DNA damage, promoting uncontrolled cell division and oesophageal cancer development.