Autofocusing technologies for whole slide imaging and automated microscopy
Zichao Bian
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Search for more papers by this authorChengfei Guo
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Shaowei Jiang
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Correspondence
Shaowei Jiang and Guoan Zheng, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
Email: [email protected] (S. J.) and Email: [email protected] (G. Z.)
Search for more papers by this authorJiakai Zhu
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Search for more papers by this authorRuihai Wang
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Search for more papers by this authorPengming Song
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Search for more papers by this authorZibang Zhang
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Search for more papers by this authorKazunori Hoshino
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Guoan Zheng
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Correspondence
Shaowei Jiang and Guoan Zheng, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
Email: [email protected] (S. J.) and Email: [email protected] (G. Z.)
Search for more papers by this authorZichao Bian
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Search for more papers by this authorChengfei Guo
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Shaowei Jiang
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Correspondence
Shaowei Jiang and Guoan Zheng, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
Email: [email protected] (S. J.) and Email: [email protected] (G. Z.)
Search for more papers by this authorJiakai Zhu
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Search for more papers by this authorRuihai Wang
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Search for more papers by this authorPengming Song
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Search for more papers by this authorZibang Zhang
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Search for more papers by this authorKazunori Hoshino
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Guoan Zheng
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Correspondence
Shaowei Jiang and Guoan Zheng, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
Email: [email protected] (S. J.) and Email: [email protected] (G. Z.)
Search for more papers by this authorZichao Bian and Chengfei Guo contributed equally to this work.
Funding information: National Science Foundation, Grant/Award Numbers: 2012140, 1700941, 1809047
Abstract
Whole slide imaging (WSI) has moved digital pathology closer to diagnostic practice in recent years. Due to the inherent tissue topography variability, accurate autofocusing remains a critical challenge for WSI and automated microscopy systems. The traditional focus map surveying method is limited in its ability to acquire a high degree of focus points while still maintaining high throughput. Real-time approaches decouple image acquisition from focusing, thus allowing for rapid scanning while maintaining continuous accurate focus. This work reviews the traditional focus map approach and discusses the choice of focus measure for focal plane determination. It also discusses various real-time autofocusing approaches including reflective-based triangulation, confocal pinhole detection, low-coherence interferometry, tilted sensor approach, independent dual sensor scanning, beam splitter array, phase detection, dual-LED illumination and deep-learning approaches. The technical concepts, merits and limitations of these methods are explained and compared to those of a traditional WSI system. This review may provide new insights for the development of high-throughput automated microscopy imaging systems that can be made broadly available and utilizable without loss of capacity.
Open Research
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
Research Data are not shared.
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