REVIEW
Enzymatic Debranching of Starch: Techniques for Improving Drug Delivery and Industrial Applications
Pankaj Bhatt,
Vipin Kumar,
Suruchi Singh,
Sakshi Garg,
Mukesh Kumar,
Ling Shing Wong,
Vinoth Kumarasamy,
Shilpa Pahwa,
Vetriselvan Subramaniyan,
Pankaj Bhatt
Lloyd Institute of Management and Technology, Plot No. 11, Knowledge Park-II, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University), Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Vipin Kumar
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University), Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Correspondence: Vipin Kumar ([email protected]) | Mukesh Kumar ([email protected]) | Vinoth Kumarasamy ([email protected]) | Vetriselvan Subramaniyan ([email protected])
Search for more papers by this authorSuruchi Singh
Accurate College of Pharmacy, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Search for more papers by this authorSakshi Garg
Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Mukesh Kumar
Department of Botany and Microbiology, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University), Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Correspondence: Vipin Kumar ([email protected]) | Mukesh Kumar ([email protected]) | Vinoth Kumarasamy ([email protected]) | Vetriselvan Subramaniyan ([email protected])
Search for more papers by this authorLing Shing Wong
Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, INTI International University, Nilai, Malaysia
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Vinoth Kumarasamy
Department of Parasitology, Medical Entomology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Correspondence: Vipin Kumar ([email protected]) | Mukesh Kumar ([email protected]) | Vinoth Kumarasamy ([email protected]) | Vetriselvan Subramaniyan ([email protected])
Search for more papers by this authorShilpa Pahwa
Lloyd Institute of Management and Technology, Plot No. 11, Knowledge Park-II, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Vetriselvan Subramaniyan
Department of Medical Sciences, Sunway University, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
Correspondence: Vipin Kumar ([email protected]) | Mukesh Kumar ([email protected]) | Vinoth Kumarasamy ([email protected]) | Vetriselvan Subramaniyan ([email protected])
Search for more papers by this authorPankaj Bhatt,
Vipin Kumar,
Suruchi Singh,
Sakshi Garg,
Mukesh Kumar,
Ling Shing Wong,
Vinoth Kumarasamy,
Shilpa Pahwa,
Vetriselvan Subramaniyan,
Pankaj Bhatt
Lloyd Institute of Management and Technology, Plot No. 11, Knowledge Park-II, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University), Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Vipin Kumar
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University), Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Correspondence: Vipin Kumar ([email protected]) | Mukesh Kumar ([email protected]) | Vinoth Kumarasamy ([email protected]) | Vetriselvan Subramaniyan ([email protected])
Search for more papers by this authorSuruchi Singh
Accurate College of Pharmacy, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Search for more papers by this authorSakshi Garg
Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Mukesh Kumar
Department of Botany and Microbiology, Gurukul Kangri (Deemed to be University), Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Correspondence: Vipin Kumar ([email protected]) | Mukesh Kumar ([email protected]) | Vinoth Kumarasamy ([email protected]) | Vetriselvan Subramaniyan ([email protected])
Search for more papers by this authorLing Shing Wong
Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, INTI International University, Nilai, Malaysia
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Vinoth Kumarasamy
Department of Parasitology, Medical Entomology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Correspondence: Vipin Kumar ([email protected]) | Mukesh Kumar ([email protected]) | Vinoth Kumarasamy ([email protected]) | Vetriselvan Subramaniyan ([email protected])
Search for more papers by this authorShilpa Pahwa
Lloyd Institute of Management and Technology, Plot No. 11, Knowledge Park-II, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Vetriselvan Subramaniyan
Department of Medical Sciences, Sunway University, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
Correspondence: Vipin Kumar ([email protected]) | Mukesh Kumar ([email protected]) | Vinoth Kumarasamy ([email protected]) | Vetriselvan Subramaniyan ([email protected])
Search for more papers by this authorFirst published: 12 March 2025
Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.
ABSTRACT
Starch is a biomacromolecule comprising glucose units linked together and is one of the most widely sourced biomacromolecules from plants because of its easy availability and versatility. However, high water solubility and rapid degradation restrict the application of starch in some areas, such as drug delivery. This review describes an enzymatic debranching methodology for enhancing the properties of starch and for improving its performance in both drug delivery applications and various industrial uses. Enzymatic debranching, with enzymes such as pullulanase and isoamylase, targets the branching points in starch chain parts. The enzymes cleave the internal covalent bonds within amylopectin branches. The final product of the reaction is a linear short-chain glucan. As a result of the enzymatic debranching reaction, large changes in digestibility and molecular weight are observed; the degree of branching decreases; the solubility is modified; viscosity characteristics are affected; and gelatinization is also affected. These changes make debranched starch suitable for use in various types of drug delivery systems, such as sustained release formulations and targeted delivery systems. By properly controlling both the debranching time and the treatment conditions, the desired properties of modified starch can be achieved. Enzymatically debranched starch is used in the food industry for enhanced textural and stabilizing properties and in the paper and textile industries to increase strength and viscosity. In addition, debranched starch can be used as a biodegradable packaging material and as a renewable source in biofuels. This review discusses recent developments concerning the enzymatic debranching of starch, describes the enzymes and techniques applied, their effects on the structure and properties of the starch obtained, and the value chain applications tested. This study provides a clear overview of how enzymatically debranched starch can play a role in the innovation of drug delivery systems and various industrial processes.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Open Research
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
- 1K. Jouppila and Y. H. Roos, “The Physical State of Amorphous Corn Starch and Its Impact on Crystallization,” Carbohydrate Polymers 32 (1997): 95–104, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0144-8617(96)00175-0.
- 2A. Zarski, K. Kapusniak, S. Ptak, et al., “Functionalization Methods of Starch and Its Derivatives: From Old Limitations to New Possibilities,” Polymers 16 (2024): 597, https://doi.org/10.3390/POLYM16050597.
- 3Y. I. Cornejo-Ramírez, O. Martínez-Cruz, C. L. Del Toro-Sánchez, et al., “The Structural Characteristics of Starches and Their Functional Properties,” CyTA—Journal of Food 16 (2018): 1003–1007, https://doi.org/10.1080/19476337.2018.1518343.
- 4K. Dome, E. Podgorbunskikh, A. Bychkov, et al., “Changes in the Crystallinity Degree of Starch Having Different Types of Crystal Structure after Mechanical Pretreatment,” Polymers 12 (2020): 641, https://doi.org/10.3390/POLYM12030641.
- 5J. Compart, A. Singh, J. Fettke, et al., “Customizing Starch Properties: A Review of Starch Modifications and Their Applications,” Polymers 15 (2023): 3491, https://doi.org/10.3390/POLYM15163491.
- 6A. Hu, X. Chen, J. I. Wang, et al., “Effects on the Structure and Properties of Native Corn Starch Modified by Enzymatic Debranching (ED), Microwave Assisted Esterification With Citric Acid (MCAE) and by the Dual ED/MCAE Treatment,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 171 (2021): 123–129, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJBIOMAC.2021.01.012.
- 7M. Ulbrich, M. Bültena, E. Flöter, et al., “Enzymatic Degradation of Starch—Usage of β-Cyclodextrin for Inactivation of Pullulanase,” Starch—Stärke 76 (2024): 2300163, https://doi.org/10.1002/STAR.202300163.
10.1002/star.202300163 Google Scholar
- 8C. K. Reddy, S. O. M. Choi, D. J. Lee, et al., “Complex Formation between Starch and Stearic Acid: Effect of Enzymatic Debranching for Starch,” Food Chemistry 244 (2018): 136–142, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODCHEM.2017.10.040.
- 9R. Morales-Medina, M. Del Mar Muñío, E. M. Guadix, et al., “Production of Resistant Starch by Enzymatic Debranching in Legume Flours,” Carbohydrate Polymers 101 (2014): 1176–1183, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CARBPOL.2013.10.027.
- 10S. A. Asiri, E. Flöter, M. Ulbrich, et al., “Enzymatic Modification of Granular Potato Starch - Effect of Debranching on Morphological, Molecular, and Functional Properties,” Starch—Stärke 71, no. 9–10 (2019): 1900060, https://doi.org/10.1002/STAR.201900060.
- 11R. H. Bimo Setiarto, M. Isra, D. Andrianto, N. Widhyastuti, and Masrukhin, “Improvement of Prebiotic Properties and Resistant Starch Content of Corn Flour (Zea mays L.) Momala Gorontalo Using Physical, Chemical and Enzymatic Modification,” Tropical Life Sciences Research 34, no. 2 (2023): 255–278, https://doi.org/10.21315/TLSR2023.34.2.13.
- 12T. Kobayashi, “Enzymatic Debranching of Starch-Type Polysaccharides,” Journal of the Japanese Society of Starch Science 17, no. 1 (1969) 61–71, https://doi.org/10.5458/JAG1953.17.61.
- 13A. Saeid, F. Akter, M. A. Ali, et al., “Enzymatic Modification of Starch: Amylases and Pullulanase,”in Advanced Research in Starch (Springer, 2024), https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9527-1_3.
10.1007/978?981?99?9527?1_3 Google Scholar
- 14P. Liu, X. Kang, B. Cui, et al., “Effects of Amylose Content and Enzymatic Debranching on the Properties of Maize Starch-Glycerol Monolaurate Complexes,” Carbohydrate Polymers 222 (2019): 115000, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CARBPOL.2019.115000.
- 15T. Hongbo, L. Lijun, L. Yanping, et al., “Debranching Potato Starch: Synthesis, Optimization and Thermal Property,” Polymer Bulletin 72 (2015): 2537–2552, https://doi.org/10.1007/S00289-015-1419-Z/METRICS.
- 16C. Mercier and K. Kainuma, “Enzymatic Debranching of Starches From Maize of Various Genotypes in High Concentration of Dimethylsulphoxide,” Starch—Stärke 27 (1975): 289–292, https://doi.org/10.1002/STAR.19750270902.
- 17M. S. Møller and B. Svensson, “Structural Biology of Starch-Degrading Enzymes and Their Regulation,” Current Opinion in Structural Biology 40, (2013): 33–42.
10.1016/j.sbi.2016.07.006 Google Scholar
- 18A. A. Papakhin and Z. M. Borodina, “Use of Pullulanase as a Biocatalyst for Starch Hydrolysis: Part 1. Study of the Effect of Pullulanase on Maize Amylopectin Starch,” Food Systems 4, no. 4 (2022): 269–277, https://doi.org/10.21323/2618-9771-2021-4-4-269-277.
10.21323/2618-9771-2021-4-4-269-277 Google Scholar
- 19D. M. Bodjrenou, X. Li, W. Chen, et al., “Effect of Pullulanase Debranching Time Combined With Autoclaving on the Structural, Physicochemical Properties, and In Vitro Digestibility of Purple Sweet Potato Starch,” Foods (Basel, Switzerland) 11, no. 23 (2022): 3779, https://doi.org/10.3390/FOODS11233779.
- 20E. O. Arijaje, Y.-J. Wang, S. Shinn, U. Shah, and A. Proctor, “Effects of Chemical and Enzymatic Modifications on Starch-Stearic Acid Complex Formation,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 62, no. 13 (2014): 2963–2972.
- 21C. Mutungi, C. Onyango, D. Jaros, et al., “Determination of Optimum Conditions for Enzymatic Debranching of Cassava Starch and Synthesis of Resistant Starch Type III Using Central Composite Rotatable Design,” Starch—Stärke 7 (2009): 367–376, https://doi.org/10.1002/STAR.200800119.
10.1002/star.200800119 Google Scholar
- 22M. Isra, D. Andrianto, and R. Setiarto, “Effect of Debranching Pullulanase for Resistant Starch Levels and Prebiotic Properties of High Carbohydrate Foods: Meta-Analysis Study,” Philippine Journal of Science 152, no. 1 (2023): 173–183, https://doi.org/10.56899/152.01.12.
10.56899/152.01.12 Google Scholar
- 23S. R. Oktaviani, D. N. Faridah, N. Wulandari, F. A. Afandi, and A. Jayanegara, “Resistant Starch Content of Dual Modification Autoclaving-Cooling and Pullulanase Debranching on Various Carbohydrate Sources: A Systematic Review,” International Journal of Food Science & Technology 58, no. 12 (2023): 6890–6901, https://doi.org/10.1111/IJFS.16525.
- 24M. Ulbrich, S. A. Asiri, R. Bussert, et al., “Enzymatic Modification of Granular Potato Starch Using Isoamylase—Investigation of Morphological, Physicochemical, Molecular, and Techno-Functional Properties,” Starch—Stärke 73, no. 1–2 (2021): 2000080, https://doi.org/10.1002/STAR.202000080.
- 25L. Boyer, X. Roussel, A. Courseaux, et al., “Expression of E. coli Glycogen Branching Enzyme in an Arabidopsis Mutant Devoid of Endogenous Starch Branching Enzymes Induces the Synthesis of Starch-Like Polyglucans,” BioRxiv (2015): 1–57, https://doi.org/10.1101/019976.
10.1101/019976 Google Scholar
- 26S. K. Kadoll, Z. Zhou, R. Dhindsa, et al., “Interplay of Starch Debranching Enzyme and Its Inhibitor Is Mediated by Redox-Activated SPL Transcription Factor,” Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal 20 (2022): 5342–5349, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CSBJ.2022.09.027.
- 27L. Boyer, X. Roussel, A. Courseaux, et al., “Expression of Escherichia coli Glycogen Branching Enzyme in an Arabidopsis Mutant Devoid of Endogenous Starch Branching Enzymes Induces the Synthesis of Starch-Like Polyglucans,” Plant, Cell & Environment 39, no. 7, (2016): 1432–1447.
- 28L. Cai and Y. C. Shi, “Self-Assembly of Short Linear Chains to A- and B-type Starch Spherulites and Their Enzymatic Digestibility,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 61, no. 45 (2013): 10787–10797, https://doi.org/10.1021/JF402570E.
- 29D. Tu, Y. Ou, Y. Zheng, et al., “Effects of Freeze-Thaw Treatment and Pullulanase Debranching on the Structural Properties and Digestibility of Lotus Seed Starch-Glycerin Monostearin Complexes,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 177 (2021): 447–454, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJBIOMAC.2021.02.168.
- 30R. M. Wang, Q.-T. Xie, S.-Y. Wang, et al., “The Structural, Functional and Digestive Characteristics of Acorn Starch After Combined Debranching and Heat–Moisture Treatment and Their Relationships,” International Journal of Food Science & Technology 57, no. 12 (2022): 7622–7633, https://doi.org/10.1111/IJFS.16098.
- 31P. Manimegalai and R. Parimalavalli, “Effect of Pullulanase Debranching on the Yield of Retrograded Pearl Millet Starch and Its Intrinsic Qualities,” Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization 17, no. 3 (2023): 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1007/S11694-022-01779-3/METRICS.
- 32Y. C. Koh and H. J. Liao, “Effects of Debranching Conditions and Annealing Treatment on the Formation of Starch Nanoparticles and Their Physicochemical Characteristics,” Foods (Basel, Switzerland) 12, no. 15 (2023): 2890, https://doi.org/10.3390/FOODS12152890.
- 33X. Chen, Z. Hu, D. Chen, and T. Feng, “Preparation and Physiochemical Properties of Enzymatically Modified Octenyl Succinate Starch,” Journal of Food Science 87, no. 5 (2022): 2112–2120, https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.16122.
- 34L. Yu and G. Christie, “Measurement of Starch Thermal Transitions Using Differential Scanning Calorimetry,” Carbohydrate Polymers 46, no. 2 (2001): 179–184, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0144-8617(00)00301-5.
- 35A. O. Ashogbon, E. T. Akintayo, A. O. Oladebeye, et al., “Developments in the Isolation, Composition, and Physicochemical Properties of Legume Starches,” Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 61, no. 17 (2021): 2938–2959, https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2020.1791048.
- 36I. Chakraborty, S. Pallen, Y. Shetty, et al., “Advanced Microscopy Techniques for Revealing Molecular Structure of Starch Granules,” Biophysical Reviews 12, no. 1 (2020): 105–122, https://doi.org/10.1007/S12551-020-00614-7.
- 37D. N. Faridah, Raden, and H. D. Kusumaningrum, “Potential Prebiotic Properties by In vitro in Arrowroot Starch (Marantha arundinaceae L.) a Combination of Acidic, Enzymatic, and Physical Modification ,” Der pharma chemica 9, no. 1, (2017): 15–21.
- 38F. Carlos-Amaya, P. Osorio-Diaz, E. Agama-Acevedo, et al., “Physicochemical and Digestibility Properties of Double-Modified Banana (Musa paradisiaca l.) Starches,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 59, no. 4 (2011): 1376–1382, https://doi.org/10.1021/jf1035004.
- 39X. Lv, Y. Hong, Q. Zhou, et al., “Structural Features and Digestibility of Corn Starch With Different Amylose Content,” Frontiers in Nutrition 8 (2021): 692673, https://doi.org/10.3389/FNUT.2021.692673/BIBTEX.
- 40S. Jansky and D. Fajardo, “Amylose Content Decreases During Tuber Development in Potato,” Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 96, no. 13 (2016): 4560–4564, https://doi.org/10.1002/JSFA.7673.
- 41Q. Su, L. Chen, L. Sun, K. Liu, and K. Gong, “Differences and Mechanism of Waxy Corn Starch and Normal Corn Starch in the Preparation of Recrystallized Resistant Starch (RS3),” Foods 13, no. 13 (2024): 2039, https://doi.org/10.3390/FOODS13132039.
- 42L. Chen, D. J. McClements, H. Zhang, et al., “Impact of Amylose Content on Structural Changes and Oil Absorption of Fried Maize Starches,” Food Chemistry 287 (2019): 28–37, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODCHEM.2019.02.083.
- 43C. Zhang, W. Xue, T. Li, and L. Wang, “Understanding the Relationship Between the Molecular Structure and Physicochemical Properties of Soft Rice Starch,” Foods 12, no. 19 (2023): 3611, https://doi.org/10.3390/FOODS12193611.
- 44S.-K. Du, H. Jiang, Y. Ai, et al., “Physicochemical Properties and Digestibility of Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Starches,” Carbohydrate Polymers 108 (2014): 200–205, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CARBPOL.2014.03.004.
- 45H. Patel, P. G. Royall, S. Gaisford, et al., “Structural and Enzyme Kinetic Studies of Retrograded Starch: Inhibition of α-Amylase and Consequences for Intestinal Digestion of Starch,” Carbohydrate Polymers 164 (2017): 154–161, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CARBPOL.2017.01.040.
- 46O. Pulgarín, D. Larrea-Wachtendorff, and G. Ferrari, “Effects of the Amylose/Amylopectin Content and Storage Conditions on Corn Starch Hydrogels Produced by High-Pressure Processing (HPP),” Gels 9, no. 2 (2023): 87, https://doi.org/10.3390/GELS9020087.
- 47Y. I. Cornejo-Ramírez, O. Martínez-Cruz, C. L. Del Toro-Sánchez, et al., “The Structural Characteristics of Starches and Their Functional Properties,” CyTA—Journal of Food 16, no. 1 (2018): 1003–1017, https://doi.org/10.1080/19476337.2018.1518343.
- 48B. R. Ramadoss, M. P. Gangola, S. Agasimani, et al., “Starch Granule Size and Amylopectin Chain Length Influence Starch In Vitro Enzymatic Digestibility in Selected Rice Mutants With Similar Amylose Concentration,” Journal of Food Science and Technology 56, no. 1 (2019): 391–400, https://doi.org/10.1007/S13197-018-3500-8.
- 49L. Guo, H. Chen, Y. Zhang, et al., “Starch Granules and Their Size Distribution in Wheat: Biosynthesis, Physicochemical Properties and Their Effect on Flour-Based Food Systems,” Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal 21 (2023): 4172–4186, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CSBJ.2023.08.019.
- 50A. Devi, R. Sindhu, and B. S. Khatkar, “Morphological, Pasting, and Textural Characterization of Starches and Their Sub Fractions of Good and Poor Cookie Making Wheat Varieties,” Journal of Food Science and Technology 56, no. 2 (2019): 846–853, https://doi.org/10.1007/S13197-018-3544-9.
- 51A. Yu, Y. Li, Y. Ni, et al., “Differences of Starch Granule Distribution in Grains From Different Spikelet Positions in Winter Wheat,” PLoS ONE 9, no. 12 (2014): e114342, https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0114342.
- 52N. Uttam Kamble, F. Makhamadjonov, B. Fahy, et al., “Initiation of B-Type Starch Granules in Wheat Endosperm Requires the Plastidial α-Glucan Phosphorylase PHS1,” The Plant Cell 35 (2023): 4091–4110, https://doi.org/10.1093/PLCELL/KOAD217.
- 53R. Kumar, N. Singh, B. S. Khatkar, et al., “Effects of A- and B-Type Starch Granules on Composition, Structural, Thermal, Morphological, and Pasting Properties of Starches From Diverse Wheat Varieties,” Food Bioengineering 2, no. 4 (2023): 373–383, https://doi.org/10.1002/FBE2.12068.
- 54S. Horstmann, K. Lynch, E. Arendt, et al., “Starch Characteristics Linked to Gluten-Free Products,” Foods 6, no. 4 (2017): 29, https://doi.org/10.3390/FOODS6040029.
- 55H. Horchani, M. Chaâbouni, Y. Gargouri, et al., “Solvent-Free Lipase-Catalyzed Synthesis of Long-Chain Starch Esters Using Microwave Heating: Optimization by Response Surface Methodology,” Carbohydrate Polymers 79, no. 2 (2010): 466–474, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2009.09.003.
- 56R. Pandiselvam, M. R. Manikantan, V. Divya, et al., “Ozone: An Advanced Oxidation Technology for Starch Modification,” Ozone: Science and Engineering 41, no. 6 (2019): 491–507, https://doi.org/10.1080/01919512.2019.1577128.
- 57C. K. Reddy, D.-J. Lee, S.-T. Lim, et al., “Enzymatic Debranching of Starches From Different Botanical Sources for Complex Formation With Stearic Acid,” Food Hydrocolloids 89 (2019): 856–863, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODHYD.2018.11.059.
- 58C. G. Arp, M. J. Correa, C. Ferrero, et al., “Production and Characterization of Type III Resistant Starch From Native Wheat Starch Using Thermal and Enzymatic Modifications,” Food and Bioprocess Technology 13 (2020): 1181–1192, https://doi.org/10.1007/S11947-020-02470-5/METRICS.
- 59D. Prongjit, H. Lekakarn, B. Bunterngsook, et al., “In-Depth Characterization of Debranching Type I Pullulanase From Priestia Koreensis HL12 as Potential Biocatalyst for Starch Saccharification and Modification,” Catalysts 12, no. 9 (2022): 1014, https://doi.org/10.3390/CATAL12091014/S1.
- 60Y. Gu, T. Liu, D. J. McClements, et al., “Enhancing the Nonlinear Rheological Property and Digestibility of Mung Bean Flour Gels Using Controlled Microwave Treatments: Effect of Starch Debranching and Protein Denaturation,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 270, pt. 2 (2024): 132049, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJBIOMAC.2024.132049.
- 61W. Xia, K. Zhang, L. Su, et al., “Microbial Starch Debranching Enzymes: Developments and Applications,” Biotechnology Advances 50 (2021): 107786, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BIOTECHADV.2021.107786.
- 62X. Wang, Y. Nie, Y. Xu, et al., “Improvement of the Activity and Stability of Starch-Debranching Pullulanase From Bacillus Naganoensis via Tailoring of the Active Sites Lining the Catalytic Pocket,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 66, no. 50 (2018): 13236–13242, https://doi.org/10.1021/ACS.JAFC.8B06002.
- 63H. Han, C. Yang, J. Zhu, et al., “Competition Between Granule Bound Starch Synthase and Starch Branching Enzyme in Starch Biosynthesis,” Rice 12 (2019): 96, https://doi.org/10.1186/S12284-019-0353-3.
- 64J. H. Dupuis, Q. Liu, and R. Y. Yada, “Methodologies for Increasing the Resistant Starch Content of Food Starches: A Review,” Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 13, no. 6 (2014): 1219–1234, https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12104.
- 65C. Wang, X. Tain, X. Zhang, et al., “Physicochemical Characterizations, Digestibility, and Lipolysis Inhibitory Effects of Highland Barley Resistant Starches Prepared by Physical and Enzymatic Methods,” Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) 28, no. 3 (2023): 1065, https://doi.org/10.3390/MOLECULES28031065.
- 66V. Kumar, V. Kumarasamy, S. Kumar, “Ultrasound Assisted Techniques for Starch Modification to Develop Novel Drug Delivery Systems: A Comprehensive Study,” Journal of Bioactive and Compatible Polymers 39, no. 4 (2024): 279–297.
- 67E. O. Arijaje, Y.-J. Wang, S. Shinn, et al., “Effects of Chemical and Enzymatic Modifications on Starch–Stearic Acid Complex Formation,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 62, no. 13 (2014): 2963–2972, https://doi.org/10.1021/JF5004682.
- 68Y. Guan, M. Wang, X. Song, et al., “Study on Structural Characteristics, Physicochemical Properties, and In Vitro Digestibility of Kudzu-Resistant Starch Prepared by Different Methods,” Food Science & Nutrition 11, no. 1 (2023): 481–492, https://doi.org/10.1002/FSN3.3079.
- 69D. E. Bensaad, M. Saleh, K. Ismail, et al., “Recent Advances in Physical, Enzymatic, and Genetic Modifications of Starches,” Jordan Journal of Agricultural Sciences 18, no. 3 (2022): 245–258, https://doi.org/10.35516/JJAS.V18I3.474.
10.35516/jjas.v18i3.474 Google Scholar
- 70E.-A. Kim, Y.-R. Lee, E.-H. Lee, et al., “Development and Applications of Enzymatic Modified Starch With High Water Solubility Providing a Continuous Supply of Glucose,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 250 (2023): 126107, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJBIOMAC.2023.126107.
- 71H. Krishnatreyya, S. Dey, P. Pal, P. J. Das, V. K. Sharma, and B. Mazumder, “Piroxicam Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs): Potential for Topical Delivery,” Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Education and Research 53, no. 2s (2019): s82–s92.
- 72L. Wang, S. Chen, C. Li, et al., “Enhancement of β-Cyclodextrin Production Using a Glycogen Debranching Enzyme From Saccharolobus Solfataricus STB09,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 72, no. 12 (2024): 6491–6499, https://doi.org/10.1021/ACS.JAFC.3C09922.
- 73F. Zeng, T. Li, H. Zhao, et al., “Effect of Debranching and Temperature-Cycled Crystallization on the Physicochemical Properties of Kudzu (Pueraria lobata) Resistant Starch,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 129 (2019): 1148–1154, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJBIOMAC.2019.01.028.
- 74H. Munir, H. Alam, M. T. Nadeem, et al., “Green Banana Resistant Starch: A Promising Potential as Functional Ingredient Against Certain Maladies,” Food Science & Nutrition 12, no. 6 (2024): 3787–3805, https://doi.org/10.1002/FSN3.4063.
- 75H. J. Liao and C. C. Hung, “Functional, Thermal and Structural Properties of Green Banana Flour (cv. Giant Cavendish) by De-Astringency, Enzymatic and Hydrothermal Treatments,” Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 78, no. 1 (2023): 52–60, https://doi.org/10.1007/S11130-022-01021-X.
- 76M. Ulbrich, I. Wiesner, and E. Flöter, “Molecular Characterization of Acid-Thinned Wheat, Potato and Pea Starches and Correlation to Gel Properties,” Starch—Stärke 67, no. 5–6 (2015): 424–437, https://doi.org/10.1002/STAR.201400233.
- 77A. Khan, S. Siddiqui, U. U. Rahman, et al., “Enzymatic Modification of Maize Flour Improves Its Functional Properties, Digestion Resistibility, and Antioxidant Potential,” Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization 17, no. 6 (2023): 1–16, https://doi.org/10.1007/S11694-023-02072-7/METRICS.
- 78F. Zheng, Q. Xu, S. Zeng, et al., “Multi-Scale Structural Characteristics of Black Tartary Buckwheat Resistant Starch by Autoclaving Combined With Debranching Modification,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 249 (2023): 126102, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJBIOMAC.2023.126102.
- 79S. Sun, Y. Hong, Z. Gu, et al., “Impacts of Fatty Acid Type on Binding state, Fine Structure, and In Vitro Digestion of Debranched Starch-Fatty Acid Complexes With Different Debranching Degrees,” Carbohydrate Polymers 318 (2023): 121107, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CARBPOL.2023.121107.
- 80K. Wangpaiboon, T. Charoenwongpaiboon, M. Klaewkla, et al., “Cassava Pullulanase and Its Synergistic Debranching Action With Isoamylase 3 in Starch Catabolism,” Frontiers in Plant Science 14 (2023): 1114215, https://doi.org/10.3389/FPLS.2023.1114215.
- 81Z. Yan, M. Zhang, M. Xu, et al., “Effect of Debranching and Differential Ethanol Precipitation on the Formation and Fermentation Properties of Maize Starch–Lipid Complexes,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 70, no. 29 (2022): 9132–9142, https://doi.org/10.1021/ACS.JAFC.2C03081.
- 82Z. B. Sun, X. Zhang, Y. Yan, J.-L. Xu, X. Lu, and Q. Ren, “The Effect of Buckwheat Resistant Starch on Intestinal Physiological Function,” Foods 12, no. 10 (2023): 2069, https://doi.org/10.3390/FOODS12102069.
- 83C. Wu, C. Colleoni, A. M. Myers, et al., “Enzymatic Properties and Regulation of ZPU1, the Maize Pullulanase-Type Starch Debranching Enzyme,” Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 406, no. 1 (2002): 21–32, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-9861(02)00412-5.
- 84M. Kasran, et al., “Extraction of Starch and Enzymatic Production of High Amylose Starch From Sweetpotato (Ipomea batatas) Var. Telong,” Journal of Tropical Agriculture and Food Science 40, no. 2 (2012).
- 85J. Bi, S. Chen, X. Zhao, et al., “Computation-Aided Engineering of Starch-Debranching Pullulanase From Bacillus Thermoleovorans for Enhanced Thermostability,” Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 104, no. 17 (2020): 7551–7562, https://doi.org/10.1007/S00253-020-10764-Z.
- 86Y. Yan, H. An, Y. Liu, et al., “Debranching Facilitates Malate Esterification of Waxy Maize Starch and Decreases the Digestibility,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 242, pt. 3 (2023): 125056, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJBIOMAC.2023.125056.
- 87G. Liu, Z. Gu, Y. Hong, et al., “Structure, Functionality and Applications of Debranched Starch: A Review,” Trends in Food Science and Technology 63 (2017): 70–79, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2017.03.004.
- 88G. Liu, Y. Hong, Z. Gu, Z. Li, L. Cheng, and C. Li, “Preparation and Characterization of Pullulanase Debranched Starches and Their Properties for Drug Controlled-Release,” RSC Advances 5 (2015): 97066–97075, https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA18701J.
- 89Z. Luo and Q. Gao, “Effect of Enzyme-Modified Carboxymethyl Starch as a Fat Replacer on the Functional Properties of Sausages,” Starch—Stärke 63, no. 10 (2011): 661–667, https://doi.org/10.1002/STAR.201100030.
- 90A. Dukic, C. Vervaet, J. P. Remon, P. A. Altieri, P. B. Foreman, “ Use of Debranched Starch in Extrusion-Spheronization Pharmaceutical Pellets,” 8318230B2 (2006).
- 91P. V. F. Lemos, H. R. Marcelino, L. G. Cardoso, et al., “Starch Chemical Modifications Applied to Drug Delivery Systems: From Fundamentals to FDA-Approved Raw Materials,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 184 (2021): 218–234, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJBIOMAC.2021.06.077.
- 92S. Chakraborty, B. Sahoo, I. Teraoka, et al., “Enzyme-Catalyzed Regioselective Modification of Starch Nanoparticles,” Macromolecules 38, no. 1 (2005): 61–68, https://doi.org/10.1021/MA048842W/SUPPL_FILE/MA048842WSI20040929_011407.PDF.
- 93S. Mun, Y. Choi, J.-Y. Shim, et al., “Effects of Enzymatically Modified Starch on the Encapsulation Efficiency and Stability of Water-in-Oil-in-Water Emulsions,” Food Chemistry 128, no. 2 (2011): 266–275, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODCHEM.2011.03.014.
- 94J. Su and J. Cheng, “Modified Methods in Starch-Based Biodegradable Films,” Advanced Materials Research 183–185 (2011): 1635–1641, https://doi.org/10.4028/WWW.SCIENTIFIC.NET/AMR.183-185.1635.
- 95B. d. C. Silva, L. A. Godoi, S. D. C. Valadares Filho, et al., “A Suitable Enzymatic Method for Starch Quantification in Different Organic Matrices,” MethodsX 6 (2019): 2322–2328, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MEX.2019.09.040.
- 96S. H. Park, Y Na, J. Kim et al., “Properties and Applications of Starch Modifying Enzymes for Use in the Baking Industry,” Food Science and Biotechnology 27, no. 2 (2017): 299–312, https://doi.org/10.1007/S10068-017-0261-5.
- 97N. Ab'lah, C. Y. L. Yusuf, P. Rojsitthisak, et al., “Reinvention of Starch for Oral Drug Delivery System Design,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 241 (2023): 124506, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJBIOMAC.2023.124506.
- 98F. H. Lermen, G. De Souza Matias, C. A. Bissaro, et al., “The Characteristics and Industrial Applications of Natural and Hydrophobic Modified Starch,” Starch—Stärke 74, no. 11–12 (2022): 2200022, https://doi.org/10.1002/STAR.202200022.
- 99B. T. Hofreiter, K. L. Smiley, J. A. Boundy, C. L. Swanson, and R. J. Fecht, “Novel Modification of Cornstarch by Immobilized Alpha-Amylase,” Novel Modification of Cornstarch By Immobilized Alpha-Amylase 55, no. 6 (1978): 995–1006.
- 100M. L. Foresti, M. D. P. Williams, R. Martínez-García, et al., “Analysis of a Preferential Action of α-Amylase From B. licheniformis Towards Amorphous Regions of Waxy Maize Starch,” Carbohydrate Polymers 102 (2014): 80–87, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CARBPOL.2013.11.013.
- 101J. Agustian and L. Hermida, “The Optimised Statistical Model for Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Tapioca by Glucoamylase Immobilised on Mesostructured Cellular Foam Silica,” Bulletin of Chemical Reaction Engineering & Catalysis 14, no. 2 (2019): 380–390, https://doi.org/10.9767/BCREC.14.2.3078.380-390.
- 102L. Kolarič, L. Minarovičová, M. Lauková, et al., “Pasta Noodles Enriched With Sweet Potato Starch: Impact on Quality Parameters and Resistant Starch Content,” Journal of Texture Studies 51, no. 3 (2020): 464–474, https://doi.org/10.1111/JTXS.12489.
- 103A. J. Ledley, R. J. Elias, H. Hopfer, et al., “A Modified Brewing Procedure Informed by the Enzymatic Profiles of Gluten-Free Malts Significantly Improves Fermentable Sugar Generation in Gluten-Free Brewing,” Beverages 7, no. 3 (2021): 53, https://doi.org/10.3390/BEVERAGES7030053/S1.
- 104L. Guo, H. Tao, B. Cui, and S. Janaswamy, “The Effects of Sequential Enzyme Modifications on Structural and Physicochemical Properties of Sweet Potato Starch Granules,” Food Chemistry 277 (2019): 504–514, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODCHEM.2018.11.014.
- 105D. Zhou, Z. Ma, X. Yin, et al., “Structural Characteristics and Physicochemical Properties of Field Pea Starch Modified by Physical, Enzymatic, and Acid Treatments,” Food Hydrocolloids 93 (2019): 386–394, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODHYD.2019.02.048.
- 106D. Tan, J. W. X. Lin, Y. Zhou, et al., “Enzymatic Hydrolysis Preserves Nutritional Properties of Oat Bran and Improves Sensory and Physiochemical Properties for Powdered Beverage Application,” LWT – Food Science and Technology 181, no. 38 (2023): 114729, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LWT.2023.114729.
- 107Q. A. Al-Maqtari, B. Li, H. -J He, A. A. Mahdi, “An Overview of the Isolation, Modification, Physicochemical Properties, and Applications of Sweet Potato Starch,” Food and Bioprocess in Technology 17, no. 2 (2023): 1–32, https://doi.org/10.1007/S11947-023-03086-1.
10.1007/S11947?023?03086?1 Google Scholar
- 108L. Ega, “Characterization and Determination of Hydrolysis Process Parameters of Superior Sweet Starch CIP-Types Enzymatically,” Food Research 7, no. 2 (2023): 316–322, https://doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.7(2).246.
10.26656/fr.2017.7(2).246 Google Scholar
- 109F. Mohammad, T. Arfin, I. B. Bwatanglang, and H. A. Al-lohedan, “Starch-Based Nanocomposites: Types and Industrial Applications,” in Bio-Based Polymers and Nanocomposites: Preparation, Processing, Properties & Performance (Springer, 2019), https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05825-8_8.
10.1007/978?3?030?05825?8_8 Google Scholar
- 110Z. Ubiparip, K. Beerens, J. Franceus, et al., “Thermostable Alpha-glucan Phosphorylases: Characteristics and Industrial Applications,” Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 102, no. 19 (2018): 8187–8202, https://doi.org/10.1007/S00253-018-9233-9.
- 111S. L. Hii, J. S. Tan, T. C. Ling, et al., “Pullulanase: Role in Starch Hydrolysis and Potential Industrial Applications,” Enzyme Research 2012 (2012): 921362, https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/921362.
- 112R. Lyu, S. Ahmed, W. Fan, et al., “Engineering Properties of Sweet Potato Starch for Industrial Applications by Biotechnological Techniques Including Genome Editing,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 17 (2021): 9533, https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS22179533.
- 113Y. Ren, T. Z. Yuan, C. M. Chigwedere, et al., “A Current Review of Structure, Functional Properties, and Industrial Applications of Pulse Starches for Value-Added Utilization,” Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 20, no. 3 (2021): 3061–3092, https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12735.
- 114Y. Fu, E. Jiang, Y. Yao, et al., “New Techniques in Structural Tailoring of Starch Functionality,” Annual Review of Food Science and Technology 13 (2022): 117–143, https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-FOOD-102821-035457.
- 115R. He, S. Li, G. Zhao, et al., “Starch Modification With Molecular Transformation, Physicochemical Characteristics, and Industrial Usability: A State-of-the-Art Review,” Polymers 15, no. 13 (2023): 2935, https://doi.org/10.3390/POLYM15132935.
- 116S. Park and Y. R. Kim, “Clean Label Starch: Production, Physicochemical Characteristics, and Industrial Applications,” Food Science and Biotechnology 30, no. 1 (2020): 1–17, https://doi.org/10.1007/S10068-020-00834-3.
- 117C.-W. C. Mason, “ Short Chain Amylose As a Replacement for Fats in Foods” 0486936B1 (1991).
- 118D. W. H. Little, “ Debranched Amylopectin-Starch As Fat Replacer” 0529893A1 (1992).
- 119S. Choton, et al., “Enzymatic Modification of Starch: A Review,” Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 10, no. 1 (2024): 1–8, https://doi.org/10.36348/sjmps.2024.v10i01.001.
10.36348/sjmps.2024.v10i01.001 Google Scholar
- 120 Europaisches Patentamt European Patent Office.
- 121M. Miao and J. N. Bemiller, “Enzymatic Approaches for Structuring Starch to Improve Functionality,” Annual Review of Food Science and Technology 14 (2023): 271–295, https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-FOOD-072122-023510/CITE/REFWORKS.
- 122F. Zhao, Y. Li, C. Li, et al., “Exo-Type, Endo-Type and Debranching Amylolytic Enzymes Regulate Breadmaking and Storage Qualities of Gluten-Free Bread,” Carbohydrate Polymers 298 (2022): 120124, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CARBPOL.2022.120124.
- 123W. Xia and J. Wu, “ Classification and Enzyme Properties of Starch Debranching Enzymes,”in Industrial Starch Debranching Enzymes, Springer, Singapore (2023), https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-7026-9_2.
10.1007/978-981-19-7026-9_2 Google Scholar
- 124W. Xia, S. Chen, and J. Wu, “ Production and the Applications in Preparation of Branched Sugar Products of Starch Debranching Enzymes,” Industrial Starch Debranching Enzymes, Springer, Singapore (2023), https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-7026-9_4.
10.1007/978-981-19-7026-9_4 Google Scholar
- 125Y. Utsumi, C. Utsumi, M. Tanaka, et al., “Suppressed Expression of Starch Branching Enzyme 1 and 2 Increases Resistant Starch and Amylose Content and Modifies Amylopectin Structure in Cassava,” Plant Molecular Biology 108, no. 4–5 (2022): 413–427, https://doi.org/10.1007/S11103-021-01209-W.
- 126M. Tõlgo, O. A. Hegnar, J. Larsbrink, et al., “Enzymatic Debranching Is a Key Determinant of the Xylan-Degrading Activity of Family AA9 Lytic Polysaccharide Monooxygenases,” Biotechnology for Biofuels and Bioproducts 16, no. 1 (2023): 2, https://doi.org/10.1186/S13068-022-02255-2/FIGURES/6.
- 127Z. Wu, S. Li, G. Chen, Y. Wang, and H. Li, “Advanced in Situ Analytical Techniques: Opening the Door for the Structural Analysis of Starch and Its Food Applications,” Trends in Food Science & Technology 138 (2023): 57–73, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TIFS.2023.05.017.
