Butter
Edible Oil and Fat Products: Edible Oils
David Hettinga,
Lanh Van Nguyen,
Fereidoon Shahidi,
David Hettinga
Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
Search for more papers by this authorLanh Van Nguyen
Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
Search for more papers by this authorFereidoon Shahidi
Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
Search for more papers by this authorDavid Hettinga,
Lanh Van Nguyen,
Fereidoon Shahidi,
David Hettinga
Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
Search for more papers by this authorLanh Van Nguyen
Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
Search for more papers by this authorFereidoon Shahidi
Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
Butter is one of the oldest forms of preserving fat components of milk. Its manufacture dates back to some of the earliest historical records.
The evolution of the art of buttermaking has been associated with the development and use of equipment. The construction of creaming and buttermaking equipment in the eighteenth century led to the appearance of the barrel churn. Creaming was at first done by a method called shallow pan. This was followed by a deep-setting system. This shortened process time and produced a better quality cream. In 1879, cream separators for fully continuous operation were produced. The Babcock test assisted in the development of the butter industry. This test determines the percentage of fat in milk and cream. Other developments included the use of pasteurization, the use of pure cultures of lactic acid and bacteria, and the use of refrigeration.
Multiple butterfat products include butter oils, anhydrous butterfat, butterfat–vegetable oils, and fractionated butterfats. Preservation of butterfat today involves the processing of butterfat to anhydrous butter oil. Shelf life is improved because the butter oil is hermetically packaged under nitrogen.
Recent times have seen a decline in the consumption of butter but this situation is being somewhat reversed more recently. This decline contradicts all historical patterns for butterfat consumption. Reasons for decline are noted. This article provides data on chemical composition, marketing, technology, processing, quality, legal restrictions, and uses.
References
- 1Hunziker, O.F. (1940). The Butter Industry, 3e, 1–23. Chicago, IL: Printing Products Corp.
- 2 D. Swern (ed.) (1979). Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products, 4e, vol. 1, 392–411. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
- 3Jensen, R.G. and Clark, R.W. (1988). In: Fundamentals of Dairy Chemistry, 3e (ed. N.P. Wong), 171–213. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., Inc.
10.1007/978-1-4615-7050-9_4 Google Scholar
- 4Helena, L.M. (2008). Food Nutr. Res. 52: 4–7.
- 5Hanna, K., Susanna, R., Asmo, K. et al. (2011). Int. Dairy J. 21: 3–13.
- 6Morrison, W.R. (1970). In: Topics in Liquid Chemistry (ed. F.D. Gunstone), 51. London: Logos Press.
- 7Jensen, R.G. (1973). J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 50: 186–192.
- 8Huppertz, T. (2006). Advanced Dairy Chemistry Lipids, 3e, vol. 2. New York: Springer Science + Business Media Inc.
- 9Girsh, L.S. (1992). Immunopath Profile, Inc. U.S. Patent 5, 112, 636, filed May 12, 1992.
- 10Brunner, J.R. (1969). In: Structural and Functional Aspects of Lipoproteins in Living Systems (ed. E. Tria and A.M. Scann), 545. London: Academic Press, Inc.
- 11Bracco, U., Hidalgo, J., and Bohren, H. (1972). J. Dairy Sci. 55: 165.
- 12Fong, B.Y., Norris, C.S., and MacGibbon, A.K.H. (2007). Int. Dairy J. 17: 275–288.
- 13Henderson, J.L. and Jack, E.L. (1944). Oil Soap 21: 90–92.
- 14Jack, E.L. and Henderson, J.L. (1945). J. Dairy Sci. 28: 65–78.
- 15Jack, E.L. and Smith, L.M. (1956). J. Dairy Sci. 39: 1–25.
- 16Gartan, G.A. and Duncan, W.R. (1956). J. Dairy Sci. Food Agri. 7: 734–739.
10.1002/jsfa.2740071202 Google Scholar
- 17 Anonymous (1961). Composition and Constants of Natural Fats and Oil by Gas-Liquid Chromatography. Minneapolis: Archer-Daniels-Midland, Minnesota.
- 18Moore, J.L., Richardson, T., and Amundson, C.H. (1965). J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 42: 796–799.
- 19Jensen, R.G., Gander, G.W., and Sampugna, J. (1962). J. Dairy Sci. 45: 329–331.
- 20White, M.F. and Brown, J.B. (1949). J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 26: 385–388.
- 21Hay, J.D. and Morrison, W.R. (1970). Biochem. Biophys. Acta 202: 237.
- 22Iverson, J.L., Eisner, J., and Firestone, D. (1965). J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 42: 1063–1068.
- 23Kuksis, A. (1972). Can. J. Biochem. 49: 1245.
- 24Kuksis, A. (1972). J. Chromatogr. Sci. 10: 53.
- 25Nutter, L.J. and Privett, O.S. (1967). J. Dairy Sci. 50: 1194.
- 26Scott, T.W., Cook, L.J., and Mills, S.C. (1972). J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 48: 358–364.
- 27Edmondson, L.F., Yoncoskie, R.A., Rainey, N.H. et al. (1974). J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 51: 72–76.
- 28Plowman, R.D., Bitman, J., Gordon, C.H. et al. (1972). J. Dairy Sci. 55: 204.
- 29Elsdon, G.D. and Smith, P. (1927). Analyst 52: 63–66.
- 30Elsdon, G.D. and Smith, P. (1927). Oil Fat Ind. 4 (103–105): 111.
- 31Williams, K.A. (1949). Analyst 74: 504–510.
10.1039/an9497400574 Google Scholar
- 32Ahren, L., BjÖrck, L., Raxnikiewictz, T., and Claesson, O. (1980). J. Dairy Sci. 63: 741–745.
- 33Tharp, B.W. and Patton, S. (1960). J. Dairy Sci. 43: 475.
- 34Kinesella, J.E., Patton, S., and Dimick, P.S. (1967). J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 44: 202–205.
- 35Kinsella, J.E., Patton, S., and Dimick, P.S. (1967). J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 44: 449–454.
- 36Lawrence, R.C. (1963). J. Dairy Sci. 30: 161.
- 37Langler, J.E. and Day, E.A. (1964). J. Dairy Sci. 47: 1291.
- 38Sanchez-Juanes, F., Alon, J.M., Zancada, L., and Hueso, P. (2009). Int. Dairy J. 19: 273–278.
- 39Mann, E.J. (1992). Dairy Ind. Int. 2: 19.
- 40Rombaut, R., Camp, J.V., and Dewettinck, K. (2005). J. Dairy Sci. 88: 482–488.
- 41Caroline, F., Valerie, B.-B., Michel, L., and Caroline, M.M. (2007). Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 109: 1167–1173.
- 42Brewington, C.R., Caress, E.A., and Schwartz, D.P. (1970). J. Lipid Res. 11: 355.
- 43Antila, V. (1982). Proceedings of the XXI International Dairy Congress, Moscow 2, 159.
- 44Parodi, P.W. (1981). J. Dairy Res. 48: 131.
- 45Kisza, J., Batura, K., Staniewski, B., and Zatorski, W. (1982). Brief Commun. 1 (1): 352.
- 46Boudreau, A. and Arul, J. (1991). Int. Dairy Fed. Bull. 260: 7–10, 13–16.
- 47Banks, W. (1991). Int. Dairy Fed. Bull. 260: 3–6, 13, 22.
- 48Huyghebaert, A. and DeMoor, H. (1991). In: Milk Fat (ed. K.K. Rajah and K.J. Burgess), 44–61. Huntingdon, UK: Society of Dairy Technology.
- 49Frede, E. (1991). Int. Dairy Fed. Bull. 260: 12.
- 50Rodrigues, J.N. and Luiz, A.G. (2003). Food. Res. Int. 36: 149–159.
- 51Aguedo, M., Hanon, E., Danthine, S. et al. (2008). J. Agric. Food Chem. 56: 1757–1765.
- 52Paula, A.V., Nunes, G.F.M., Freitas, L. et al. (2010). J. Mol. Catal. B: Enzym. 65: 117–121.
- 53Nunes, G.F.M., Paula, A.V., de Castro, H.F., and Santos, J.C. (2011). Food Chem. 125: 133–138.
- 54Nunes, G.F.M., Paula, A.V., de Castro, H.F., and Santos, J.C. (2015). Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 54: 1731–1737.
- 55Mohamed, M.S., Marlene, P., and Pierre, V. (2013). Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 115: 270–285.
- 56Marschner, S.S. and Fine, J.B. (1989). General Mills, Inc. US Patent 4, 804, 555.
- 57 Anonymous (1989). R&D Applications, Cholesterol Reduced Fat, 99. Chicago, IL: Prepared Foods.
- 58 Anonymous (1988). Short Path Molecular Distribution. Rochester, New York: CVC Products Inc.
- 59Bracco, U. (1980). Brit. Patent 1, 559, 064.
- 60Hettinga, D.H. (1991). Altering Fat Composition of Dairy Products. Ames, Iowa: Council Agri. Sci. Technol.
- 61Arul, J., Boudreau, A., Makhlouf, J. et al. (1988). J. Dairy Res. 55: 361.
- 62Keen, A.R. (1989). Eur. Patent 0318326A2.
- 63Oakenfull, D. and Sidhu, G.S. (1990). Sidoak, Austral. Patent Applications 54768/90 and 55112/90.
- 64Morel, F. (1990). Food Process. 1056: 19–21.
- 65Micich, T.J. (1990). J. Agr. Food Chem. 38: 1839.
- 66 Anonymous (1989). Research Review Special Report 2. Madison, Wisconsin: Wisconsin Milk Marketing Board.
- 67 Anonymous (1990). Dairy Ind. Int. 55 (6): 37–38.
- 68 Anonymous (1989). Food Eng. 61 (2): 83.
- 69Chen, H., Schwartz, S.J., and Spanos, G.A. (1992). J. Dairy Sci. 75 (10): 2659–2669.
- 70Hettinga, D.H. (1988). Designing Foods, 292. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
- 71Arul, J., Boudreau, A., Makhlouf, J. et al. (1988). J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 65: 1642.
- 72Harlander, S. (1988). J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 65 (11): 1727.
- 73Cant, P. A. E. Ref. 39, 122–135.
- 74 International Dairy Federation (IDF). (1993). Analytical quality Assurance and good laboratory Practice in Dairy Laboratories. Special Issue No.9302.
- 75 International Dairy Federation (IDF). (1996). Inventory of IDP/ISO/AOAC adapted method of analysis and sampling of Milk and Milk products.
- 76 Code of Federal Regulations (1983). Title 7, Part 58, Subpart P. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
- 77Hettinga, D.H. (1993). In: Encyclopedia of Food Technology, vol. 1 (ed. Y.H. Hui), 231–237. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
- 78Chrysam, M.M. (1985). In: Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products, vol. 3 (ed. T.H. Applewhite). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
- 79Wood, R., Kubena, K., O'Brien, B. et al. (1993). J. Lipid Res. 34 (1): 1–11.
- 80 International Dairy Federation (1977). Standard 68A: Anhydrous Milkfat, Anhydrous Butteroil or Anhydrous Butterfat, Butteroil or Butterfat, Ghee: Standards of Identity. Brussels, Belgium: IDF.
- 81 FAO/WHO CODEX STAN A-2-1973. Adopted in 1973. Revised in 1999. Amended in 2006, 2010, 2018.
- 82Collomb, M. and Spahni, M. (1991). Mitteil. Gebiete Lebensmit. Untersuch. Hyg. 82 (6): 615–662.
- 83Sato, T., Kawano, S., and Iwanoto, M. (1990). J. Dairy Sci. 73 (12): 3408–3413.
- 84Lucisano, M., Casiraghi, E., and Pompei, C. (1989). J. Texture Stud. 20 (3): 301–315.
- 85Strugnell, C.J. (1990). J. Food Sci. Technol. 14 (2): 128–129.
- 86Forman, L., Stern, P., and Matouskova, E. (1989). Milchwissenschaft 44: 761–764.
- 87Schaffer, B. and Szakaly, S. (1982). Brief Commun. 1 (1): 337.
- 88Norris, R. (1991). Int. Dairy Fed. Bull. 260 (5): 23–25.
- 89Richardson, T. and Korycka-Dahl, M. (1983). In: Developments in Dairy Chemistry, vol. 2 (ed. P.F. Fox). London: Elsevier Applied Science.
- 90Schroder, M. (1988). Ger. Patent DF 36 23 313 A1.
- 91Hulsemeyer, F. (1990). Kieler Milchwirtschaft. Forschung. 42 (2): 115–117.
- 92 C.C. Ramesh, K. Arun, and P.S. Nagendra (ed.) (2008). Dairy Processing & Quality Assurance. Iowa, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
- 93Bird, J. Ref. 39, 30–36.
- 94Dixon, B.D. (1986). Int. Dairy Fed. Bull. 204: 3–5.
- 95Kimenai, M. (1986). Int. Dairy Fed. Bull. 204: 16.
- 96Wiedermann, L.H. (1978). J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 55 (11): 823.
- 97Schweizer, M. (1986). Int. Dairy Fed. Bull. 204: 10.
- 98Bjerre, P. Ref. 39, 63–73.
- 99McDowall, F.H. (1953). The Butter Maker's Manual. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand University Press.
- 100Friis, P. (1982). Brief Commun. 1 (1): 326.
- 101 Anonymous (1954). Gold'n Flow Continuous Buttermaking Method. Chicago, Illinois: Bulletin G-493, Cherry-Burrell Corp.
- 102Kawanari, M., Okamoto, K., Honda, Y., and Jukushima, M. (1992). J. Jpn. Soc. Food Sci. Technol. 39 (3): 227–232.
10.3136/nskkk1962.39.227 Google Scholar
- 103Kleyn, D.H. (1992). Food Technol. 46 (1): 118–121.
- 104Toma, J., Curtis, J.D., and Sobotor, C. (1988). Food Technol. 42: 93–95.
- 105 Anonymous (1984). Int. Dairy Fed. Bull. 170.
- 106Charteris, W.P. and Keogh, M.K. (1991). J. Soc. Dairy Technol. 44 (1): 3–8.
10.1111/j.1471-0307.1991.tb00621.x Google Scholar
- 107Macnab, I. (1989). Modern Dairy 68 (3): 23.
- 108Gulyayev-Zaitsev, S., Dobronos, V., Berezansky, J., and Zhirnaya, N. (1982). Brief Commun. 1 (1).
- 109Gerstenberg, O. (1988). Dairy Ind. Int. 53 (11): 28.
- 110Anderson, K. (1991). Int. Dairy Fed. Bull. 260: 17–18.
- 111Pedersen, A. (1990). Scand. Dairy Inform. 4 (3): 74–75.
- 112Babayan, V.K., Blackbrun, G.L., and Bistrian, B.R. (1990). N.E. Decaness Hospital. U.S. Patent 4, 952, 606.
- 113Rosenbaum, G. (1992). Dairy Foods 93 (7): 13.
- 114Graves, F. (1984). Land O'Lakes, Inc. U.S. Patent 4, 425, 370, filed January 10.
- 115Antenore, D., Schmadeke, D., and Steward, R. (1984). Land O'Lakes, Inc. U.S. Patent 4, 447, 463, filed May 8.
- 116Schaffer, B. and Szakaly, S. (1982). Brief Commun. 1 (1): 363.
- 117 C.C. Ramesh and K. Arun (ed.) (2011). Dairy Ingredients for Food Processing. Iowa, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
- 118Giles, A. and Amer, J. (1988). Oil Chem. Soc. 65: 1708–1712.
- 119Van den Berg, G. (1982). Proceedings of the XXI International Dairy Congress. Moscow 2, Brussels, Belgium: IDF, 153.
- 120Siek, T. and Lindsay, J. (1970). J. Dairy Sci. 53: 700.
- 121Kinsella, J.E. (1975). Food Technol. 29 (5): 82–98.
- 122Cullinane, N. and Eason, D. (1982). Brief Commun. 1 (1): 349.
- 123Mortensen, B.K. and Jansen, K. (1982). Brief Commun. 1 (1): 334.
- 124Berntsen, S. (1992). Int. Patent Application WO 92/19111 A1.
- 125Fearson, A.M. and Johnston, D.E. (1988). Dairy Ind. Int. 53 (10): 25–29.
- 126Petersen, A. (1991). Int. Dairy Fed. Bull. 260: 12.
- 127DeJong, E. and Van den Berg, G. (1986). Voedingsmiddelenttechnologie 19 (5): 35–38.
- 128Kaylegian, K.E. and Lindsay, R.C. (1992). J. Dairy Sci. 75 (12): 3307–3317.
- 129Bumbalough, J. (1989). Wisconsin Milk Marketing Board, Inc. U.S. Patent 4, 839, 190, filed June 13, 1989.
- 130Fouad, F.M., Vandevoort, F.R., Marshall, W.D., and Farrell, P.G. (1990). J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 67 (12): 981–988.
- 131Makhlouf, J., Arul, J., Bordreau, A. et al. (1987). J. Can. Inst. Food Sci. Technol. 20 (4): 263–245.
10.1016/S0315-5463(87)71194-8 Google Scholar
- 132Mickle, J.B. (1960). Tech. Bull. T-83. Stillwater, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Agriculural Experiment Station.
- 133Banks, W. and Christie, W.W. (1990). Outlook Agr. 19 (1): 43–47.
- 134Middaugh, R.P., Baer, R.J., Casper, D.P. et al. (1988). J. Dairy Sci. 71 (12): 3179–3187.
- 135Stegeman, G.A., Baer, R.J., Schingoethe, D.J., and Casper, D.P. (1992). J. Dairy Sci. 75 (4): 962–970.
- 136Rohm, H. and Raaber, S. (1992). J. Food Sci. 57 (3): 647–650.
- 137Landon, T. (2004). U.S. Patent Application 20040033303 filed August 16, 2002, Method of forming a non-fractionated, room temperature pourable butter.
- 138Rajah, K.K. and Burgess, K.J. Ref. 39, 37–43.
- 139Barts, R. (1991). Int. Dairy Fed. Bull. 260: 19–20.
- 140Wibley, R.A. Ref. 39, 136–147.
- 141 Anonymous (1982). Technical Guide for the Packaging of Milk and Milk Products Document 143, 2e. Brussels, Belgium: IDF.
- 142Mansour, R.G. (1992). Int. Patent WO 9202 144, filed February 20, 1992.
- 143Egli, R. (1989). Egli AG, Int. Patent WO 89/10689 A1.
- 144 Proceedings of IDF Seminar, Singapore, (1982). Int. Dairy Fed. Doc., 142
- 145 Anonymous (1974). IDF Study 74. Brussels, Belgium: IDF.
- 146Zillen, M. (1977). Document 116, 1–4. Brussels, Belgium: IDF.
- 147Behrens, G. (1988). Document 224, 8–9. Brussels, Belgium: IDF.
- 148Wadhwa, B.K. and Jain, M.K. (1992). Indian J. Dairy Sci. 44 (6): 372–374.
- 149Spieler, R. (1980). Document 149, 132–135. Brussels, Belgium: IDF.
- 150Gordon, M. (1991). Int. Dairy Fed. Bull. 260: 20.
- 151Sitaram, P. and Gupta, S.K. (1988). Agr. Rev. 9 (2): 81–104.
- 152Guenault, B. (1992). Dairy Ind. Int. 57 (6): 32.
- 153Malcata, F.X., Hill, C.G., and Amundson, C.H. (1992). Biotechnol. Bioeng. 39 (11): 1097–1111.
- 154Comi, G., D'Aubert, S., and Valenti, M. (1990). Ind. Aliment. 29 (281): 358–361.
- 155Kintish, L. (1993). J. Soap Cosmetics Chem. Special. 69 (2): 51.
- 156 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census (1993). Statistical Abstracts of the United States, 113e. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
- 157Hetzner, E. and Jacknik, P. (1993). Int. Dairy Fed. Bull. 293: 19.
- 158 Anonymous (1993). Trends in the U.S. Consumer Attitudes and the Supermarket. Washington, DC: Food Marketing Institute.
- 159 International Margarine Association of the Countries of Europe. http://www.imace.org.
- 160Economic Research Service, USDA (2004). The structure of dairy markets: past, present, future AER-757. USDA.gov.
- 161 Chicago Mercantile Exchange (2004). Cash Markets, July 16.
