Lipid Emulsions
Edible Oil and Fat Products: Specialty Oils and Oil Products
David J. McClements,
Jochen Weiss, Maria G. Corradini,
David J. McClements
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
Search for more papers by this authorMaria G. Corradini
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
Search for more papers by this authorDavid J. McClements,
Jochen Weiss, Maria G. Corradini,
David J. McClements
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
Search for more papers by this authorMaria G. Corradini
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
In many foods, lipids are often present in a particulate form, i.e. they exist as emulsions where either small fat droplets are dispersed in an aqueous phase or small water droplets are dispersed in an oil phase. Physicochemical characteristics, functionality, and sensory properties of lipid emulsions are largely dominated by the size, concentration, physical state, and interactions of the lipid droplets that they contain. This article introduces the basic concepts and techniques of emulsion science and illustrates how these principles can be used to better understand and control appearance, flavor, stability, functionality, and rheology of food emulsions.
References
- 1 Dickinson, E. (1992). Introduction to Food Colloids. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
- 2 Dickinson, E. and Rodriguez Patino, J. (1999). Food Emulsions and Foams. Cambridge, UK: The Royal Society of Chemistry.
- 3 Dickinson, E. and Stainsby, G. (1982). Colloids in Foods. London, UK: Applied Science.
- 4
Friberg, S.E., Larsson, K., and Sjoblom, J. (2003). Food Emulsions. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
10.1201/9780203913222 Google Scholar
- 5
McClements, D.J. (2015). Food Emulsions: Principles, Practices, and Techniques. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
10.1201/b18868 Google Scholar
- 6 Becher, P. (1996). Encyclopedia of Emulsion Technology. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker.
- 7 Evans, D.F. and Wennerström, H. (1999). The Colloidal Domain: Where Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Technology Meet, 2 . New York, NY: Wiley.
- 8
Hiemenz, P.C. and Rajagopalan, R. (1997). Principles of Colloid and Surface Chemistry. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker.
10.1201/9781315274287 Google Scholar
- 9 Hunter, R.J. (1993). Introduction to Modern Colloid Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- 10 Sloan, A.E. (2017). Food Technol. 71 (4): 20–35.
- 11 Hollingsworth, P. (1998). Food Technol. 52 (5): 76.
- 12 Walstra, P. and Smulders, P.E.A. (1998). In: Modern Aspects of Emulsion Science (ed. B.P. Binks), 56–99. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry.
- 13 Dickinson, E. (2015). Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol. 6 (1): 211–233.
- 14 Mao, L. and Miao, S. (2015). Food Eng. Rev. 7 (4): 439–451.
- 15 McClements, D.J. (2010). Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol. 1 (1): 241–269.
- 16 Dickinson, E. and McClements, D.J. (1995). Advances in Food Colloids. London, UK: Chapman & Hall.
- 17 Evison, J., Dickinson, E., Owusu Apenten, R.K., and Williams, A. (1995). In: Food Macromolcules and Colloids (ed. J. Evison, E. Dickinson and D. Lorient), 235–243. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry.
- 18 Acosta, E. (2009). Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 14 (1): 3–15.
- 19 Salvia-Trujillo, L., Soliva-Fortuny, R., Rojas-Graü, M.A. et al. (2017). Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol. 8 (1): 439–466.
- 20 McClements, D.J. (2017). Adv. Colloid Interf. Sci. 240: 31–59.
- 21 McClements, D.J. (2012). Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 17 (5): 235–245.
- 22 Yi, C.L., Yang, Y.Q., Jiang, J.Q. et al. (2011). Prog. Chem. 23 (1): 65–79.
- 23 Israelachvili, J. (2011). Intermolecular and Surface Forces. London, UK: Academic Press.
- 24 Kralova, I. and Sjoblom, J. (2009). J. Dispers. Sci. Technol. 30 (9): 1363–1393.
- 25
Stauffer, S. (1999). Emulsifiers, MN. St Paul: Eagen Press.
10.1094/1891127020 Google Scholar
- 26 Saha, D. and Bhattacharya, S. (2010). J. Food Sci. Technol. 47 (6): 587–597.
- 27 Taherian, A.R., Fustier, P., Britten, M., and Ramaswamy, H.S. (2008). Food Biophys. 3 (3): 279–286.
- 28 McClements, D.J., Henson, L., Popplewell, L.M. et al. (2012). J. Food Sci. 77 (1): C33–C38.
- 29 Hunter, R.J. (1986). Foundations of Colloid Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- 30 Rice, J.A. (1995). Mathematical Statistics and Data Analysis. Duxbury, MA: Brookslide Publishing Company.
- 31 Orr, C. (1988). In: Encyclopedia of Emulsion Technology, vol. 3 (ed. P. Becher). New York, NY: Marcel Dekker.
- 32 Coupland, J.N. and McClements, D.J. (1996). Trends Food Sci. Technol. 7 (3): 83–91.
- 33 Dickinson, E. (2010). Colloids Surf. B: Biointerfaces 81 (1): 130–140.
- 34 Landy, P., Courthaudon, J.-L., Dubois, C., and Voilley, A. (1996). J. Agric. Food Chem. 44 (2): 526–530.
- 35 Mei, L., McClements, D.J., Wu, J., and Decker, E.A. (1998). Food Chem. 61 (3): 307–312.
- 36 Qian, C., Decker, E.A., Xiao, H., and McClements, D.J. (2011). J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 88 (1): 47–55.
- 37 Berton-Carabin, C.C., Ropers, M.-H., and Genot, C. (2014). Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 13 (5): 945–977.
- 38 Klinkesorn, U., Sophanodora, P., Chinachoti, P. et al. (2005). J. Agric. Food Chem. 53 (11): 4561–4566.
- 39 Cornacchia, L. and Roos, Y.H. (2011). J. Food Sci. 76 (8): C1211–C1218.
- 40 Tikekar, R.V. and Nitin, N. (2011). Soft Matter 7 (18): 8149–8157.
- 41 Walstra, P. (1996b). In: Encyclopedia of Emulsion Technology, vol. 4 (ed. P. Becher). New York, NY: Marcel Dekker.
- 42
Dickinson, E. (1995). New Physico-Chemical Techniques for the Characterization of Complex Food Systems. London, UK: Chapman & Hall.
10.1007/978-1-4615-2145-7 Google Scholar
- 43 McClements, D.J. (2012b). Adv. Colloid Interf. Sci. 174: 1–30.
- 44 Sonoda, T., Takata, Y., Ueno, S., and Sato, K. (2006). Cryst. Growth Des. 6 (1): 306–312.
- 45 Hunter, R.J. (1989). Foundations of Colloid Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- 46 Dickinson, E. (2001). Colloids Surf. B: Biointerfaces 20 (3): 197–210.
- 47 Erni, P., Jerri, H.A., Wong, K., and Parker, A. (2012). Soft Matter 8 (26): 6958–6967.
- 48 Rodríguez Patino, J.M. and Rodríguez Niño, M.R. (1999). Colloids Surf. B: Biointerfaces 15 (3): 235–252.
- 49 Wilde, P.J. (2000). Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 5 (3): 176–181.
- 50 Xiang, S., Yao, X., Zhang, W. et al. (2015). Food Hydrocoll. 48: 110–116.
- 51 Dickinson, E. (2011). Food Hydrocoll. 25 (8): 1966–1983.
- 52 Dickinson, E. (2012). Food Hydrocoll. 28 (1): 224–241.
- 53 Dickinson, E. (2013). Adv. Colloid Interf. Sci. 199: 114–127.
- 54 Lodge, J.F.M. and Heyes, D.M. (1999). J. Rheol. 43 (1): 219–244.
- 55 Dickinson, E. (1998). In: Modern Aspects of Emulsion Science (ed. B.P. Binks), 145–174. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry.
- 56 Manoj, P., Watson, A.D., Hibberd, D.J. et al. (1998). J. Colloid Interface Sci. 207 (2): 294–302.
- 57 Loncin, M. and Merson, R.L. (1979). Food Engineering: Principles and Selected Applications. New York, NY: Academic Press.
- 58 Walstra, P. (2003). Physical Chemistry of Foods. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker.
- 59 Schubert, H. and Engel, R. (2004). Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 82 (A9): 1137–1143.
- 60 Walstra, P. (1993). Chem. Eng. Sci. 48: 333.
- 61 Håkansson, A., Trägårdh, C., and Bergenståhl, B. (2009). Chem. Eng. Sci. 64 (12): 2915–2925.
- 62 S.S. Dukhin, G. Krietchamer, and R. Miller (1995). Dynamics of Adsorption at Liquid Interfaces: Theory, Experiment and Application. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
- 63 Walstra, P. (1996). In: Food Chemistry (ed. O.R. Fennema). New York, NY: Marcel Dekker.
- 64 Liao, Y.X. and Lucas, D. (2009). Chem. Eng. Sci. 64 (15): 3389–3406.
- 65 Sajjadi, B., Raman Abdul Aziz, A., Shah Raja Shazrin Shah Raja, E., and Ibrahim, S. (2013). Rev. Chem. Eng. 29: 131.
- 66 Hakansson, A. (2016). J. Food Eng. 178: 47–59.
- 67 Karbstein, H. and Schubert, H. (1995). Chem. Eng. Process. Process Intensif. 34 (3): 205–211.
- 68 Seekkuarachchi, I.N., Tanaka, K., and Kumazawa, H. (2006). Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 45 (1): 372–390.
- 69 Walstra, P. (1983). In: Encyclopedia of Emulsion Technology, Vol. 1., Basic Theory (ed. P. Becher). New York, NY: Marcel Dekker.
- 70 Gupta, A., Eral, H.B., Hatton, T.A., and Doyle, P.S. (2016). Soft Matter 12 (11): 2826–2841.
- 71 Liao, Y. and Lucas, D. (2010). Chem. Eng. Sci. 65 (10): 2851–2864.
- 72 Baret, J.-C., Kleinschmidt, F., El Harrak, A., and Griffiths, A.D. (2009). Langmuir 25 (11): 6088–6093.
- 73 Schubert, H. (1997). In: Engineering and Food (ed. R. Jowitt). Sheffield, UK: Academic Press.
- 74 Håkansson, A., Askaner, M., and Innings, F. (2016). J. Food Eng. 175: 127–135.
- 75 Stang, M., Karbstein, H., and Schubert, H. (1994). Chem. Eng. Process. Process Intensif. 33 (5): 307–311.
- 76 Håkansson, A. and Hounslow, M.J. (2013). J. Food Eng. 116 (1): 7–13.
- 77 Maindarkar, S.N., Hoogland, H., and Henson, M.A. (2015). Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 54 (42): 10301–10310.
- 78 Maindarkar, S.N., Hoogland, H., and Henson, M.A. (2015). Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 467: 18–30.
- 79 Raikar, N.B., Bhatia, S.R., Malone, M.F. et al. (2011). Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 50 (10): 6089–6100.
- 80 Stang, M., Karbstein, H., and Schubert, H. (2001). Eng. Life Sci. 1: 151–162.
- 81 Wooster, T.J., Golding, M., and Sanguansri, P. (2008). Langmuir 24 (22): 12758–12765.
- 82 Panagiotou, T., Chomistek, J., and Fisher, R. (2012). In: Nanoformulation (ed. G.J.T. Tiddy and R.B.H. Tan). RSC Publishing.
- 83 Rampon, V., Riaublanc, A., Anton, M. et al. (2003). J. Agric. Food Chem. 51 (20): 5900–5905.
- 84 Lee, L.L., Niknafs, N., Hancocks, R.D., and Norton, I.T. (2013). Trends Food Sci. Technol. 31 (1): 72–78.
- 85 Zeeb, B., Herz, E., McClements, D.J., and Weiss, J. (2014). J. Colloid Interface Sci. 433: 196–203.
- 86 Zeng, L. and Zhang, Y. (2016). Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 509: 591–600.
- 87 McClements, D.J. and Gumus, C.E. (2016). Adv. Colloid Interf. Sci. 234: 3–26.
- 88 Phipps, L.W. (1985). The High Pressure Dairy Homogenizer. Reading, England: The National Institute for Research in Dairying.
- 89 Schubert, H., Ax, K., and Behrend, O. (2003). Trends Food Sci. Technol. 14 (1): 9–16.
- 90 Santana, R.C., Perrechil, F., and Cunha, R. (2013). Food Eng. Rev. 5 (2): 107–122.
- 91 Fredrick, E., Walstra, P., and Dewettinck, K. (2010). Adv. Colloid Interf. Sci. 153 (1): 30–42.
- 92 Håkansson, A., Innings, F., Trägårdh, C., and Bergenståhl, B. (2013). Chem. Eng. Sci. 91: 44–53.
- 93 Kamp, J., Villwock, J., and Kraume, M. (2017). Rev. Chem. Eng. 33 (1): 1–47.
- 94 Raikar, N.B., Bhatia, S.R., Malone, M.F., and Henson, M.A. (2009). Chem. Eng. Sci. 64 (10): 2433–2447.
- 95 Raikar, N.B., Bhatia, S.R., Malone, M.F. et al. (2010). Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 361 (1): 96–108.
- 96 Maindarkar, S., Dubbelboerb, A., Meuldijk, J. et al. (2014). Chem. Eng. Sci. 118: 114–125.
- 97 Kinsella, J.E. and Whitehead, D.M. (1989). Adv. Food Nutr. Res. 33: 343–438.
- 98 Cheetangdee, N. and Fukada, K. (2012). Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 403: 54–61.
- 99 Das, A.K. and Ghosh, P.K. (1990). Langmuir 6 (11): 1668–1675.
- 100 Weiss, J. and McClements, D.J. (2000). Langmuir 16 (5): 2145–2150.
- 101 Dukhin, S. and Sjoblom, J. (1996). In: Emulsions and Emulsion Stability (ed. J. Sjoblom). New York, NY: Marcel Dekker.
- 102 Lips, A., Westbury, T., Hart, P.M. et al. (1993). In: Food Colloids and Polymers: Stability and Mechanical Properties (ed. E. Dickinson and P. Walstra), 31. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry.
- 103
Tadros, T.F. (2016). Emulsions – Formation, Stability, Industrial Applications. Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter GmbH.
10.1515/9783110452242 Google Scholar
- 104 Luyten, H., Jonkman, M., Kloek, W., and van Vliet, T. (1993). In: Food Colloids and Polymers: Stability and Mechanical Properties (ed. E. Dickinson and P. Walstra), 224. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry.
- 105 van Aken, G.A., Blijdenstein, T.B.J., and Hotrum, N.E. (2003). Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 8 (4): 371–379.
- 106 Demetriades, K., Coupland, J.N., and McClements, D.J. (1997a). J. Food Sci. 62 (2): 342–347.
- 107 Aben, S., Holtze, C., Tadros, T., and Schurtenberger, P. (2012). Langmuir 28 (21): 7967–7975.
- 108 Jenkins, P. and Snowden, M. (1996). Adv. Colloid Interf. Sci. 68: 57–96.
- 109 Chu, B.-S., Ichikawa, S., Kanafusa, S., and Nakajima, M. (2008). J. Sci. Food Agric. 88 (10): 1764–1769.
- 110 Demetriades, K., Coupland, J.N., and McClements, D.J. (1997b). J. Food Sci. 62 (3): 462–467.
- 111 Raikos, V. (2017). Food Hydrocoll. 72: 155–162.
- 112 Monahan, F.J., McClements, D.J., and German, J.B. (1996). J. Food Sci. 61 (3): 504–509.
- 113 Sliwinski, E.L., Roubos, P.J., Zoet, F.D. et al. (2003). Colloids Surf. B: Biointerfaces 31 (1): 231–242.
- 114 Dickinson, E. (2003). Food Hydrocoll. 17 (1): 25–39.
- 115 Guzey, D. and McClements, D.J. (2006). Adv. Colloid Interf. Sci. 128: 227–248.
- 116 Dickinson, E. (1989). J. Colloid Interface Sci. 132 (1): 274–278.
- 117 Ogawa, H., Sugita, K., Saito, K. et al. (2002). J. Chromatogr. A 954 (1): 89–97.
- 118 Boode, K., Bisperink, C., and Walstra, P. (1991). Colloids Surf. 61: 55–74.
- 119 Boode, K. and Walstra, P. (1993). Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 81: 121–137.
- 120 Boode, K., Walstra, P., and de Groot-Mostert, A.E.A. (1993). Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 81: 139–151.
- 121 Goff, H.D. (1997). J. Dairy Sci. 80 (10): 2620–2630.
- 122
Goff, H.D. and Hartel, R.W. (2013). Ice Cream. New York, NY: Springer.
10.1007/978-1-4614-6096-1 Google Scholar
- 123
Barford, N.M., Krog, N., Larsen, G., and Buchheim, W. (1991). Fett/Lipid 93 (1): 24–29.
10.1002/lipi.19910930104 Google Scholar
- 124 Chrysam, M.M. (1996). In: Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products, 5th Edition, Vol. 3, Edible Oil and Fat Products: Products and Application Technology (ed. Y.H. Hui). New York, NY: Wiley.
- 125 Goff, H.D., Liboff, M., Jordon, W.K., and Kinsella, J.E. (1987). Food Microstruc. 6: 193.
- 126
Moran, D.P.J. (1994). In: Fats in Food Products (ed. D.P.J. Moran and K.K. Rajah). London, UK: Blackie Academic and Professional.
10.1007/978-1-4615-2121-1_5 Google Scholar
- 127 Kabalnov, A. (2001). J. Dispers. Sci. Technol. 22 (1): 1–12.
- 128 Kabalnov, A.S. and Shchukin, E.D. (1992). Adv. Colloid Interf. Sci. 38: 69–97.
- 129 Taylor, P. (1998). Adv. Colloid Interf. Sci. 75 (2): 107–163.
- 130 Chang, Y.H., McLandsborough, L., and McClements, D.J. (2012). J. Agric. Food Chem. 60 (48): 12056–12063.
- 131 Li, Y., Le Maux, S., Xiao, H., and McClements, D.J. (2009). J. Agric. Food Chem. 57 (19): 9243–9249.
- 132 Walker, R.M., Gumus, C.E., Decker, E.A., and McClements, D.J. (2017). J. Food Eng. 211: 60–68.
- 133 Dickinson, E. and Golding, M. (1998). J. Colloid Interface Sci. 197 (1): 133–141.
- 134 Ariyaprakai, S. and Dungan, S.R. (2010). J. Colloid Interface Sci. 343 (1): 102–108.
- 135 Mun, S.H. and McClements, D.J. (2006). Langmuir 22 (4): 1551–1554.
- 136 Brooks, B.W., Richmond, H.N., and Zerfa, M. (1998). In: Modern Aspects of Emulsion Science (ed. B.P. Binks). Cambridge, UK: The Royal Society of Chemistry.
- 137 Kabalnov, A. (1998). In: Modern Aspects of Emulsion Science (ed. B.P. Binks). Cambridge, U.K.: The Royal Society of Chemistry.
- 138 Waraho, T., McClements, D.J., and Decker, E.A. (2011). Trends Food Sci. Technol. 22 (1): 3–13.
- 139 Decker, E., McClements, D.J., Bourlieu-Lacanal, C. et al. (2017). Trends Food Sci. Technol. 67: 183–194.
- 140 Kiokias, S., Gordon, M.H., and Oreopoulou, V. (2016). Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 57 (3): 549–558.
- 141 Romsted, L.S. and Bravo-Diaz, C. (2013). Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 18 (1): 3–14.
- 142
Norton, I., Spyropoulos, F., and Cox, P. (2011). Practical Food Rheology - An Interpretative Approach. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
10.1002/9781444391060 Google Scholar
- 143 Rao, M.A. (2013). Rheology of Fluid, Semisolid and Solid Food. New York, NY: Springer.
- 144 Chen, J. and Stokes, J. (2012). Trends Food Sci. Technol. 25: 4–12.
- 145 Selway, N. and Stokes, J.R. (2014). Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol. 5 (1): 373–393.
- 146 Fellows, P. (2016). Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practice. New York, NY: Woodhead Publishing.
- 147 Larson, R.G. (1999). The Structure and Rheology of Complex Fluids. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- 148 Pal, R., Yan, Y., and Masliyah, J.H. (1992). In: Emulsions: Fundamentals and Applications in the Petroleum Industry (ed. L.L. Schramm). Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.
- 149 Derkach, S.R. (2009). Adv. Colloid Interf. Sci. 151 (1): 1–23.
- 150 Masalova, I., Foudazi, R., and Malkin, A.Y. (2011). Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 375 (1): 76–86.
- 151 Pal, R. (2011). Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 16 (1): 41–60.
- 152 Gallo-Molina, J.P., Ratkovich, N., and Álvarez, Ó. (2017). Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 56 (27): 7757–7767.
- 153 Chanamai, R. and McClements, D.J. (2000). Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 172 (1): 79–86.
- 154
Hutchings, J.B. (1994). Food Colour and Appearence. London, UK: Blackie Academic and Professional.
10.1007/978-1-4615-2123-5 Google Scholar
- 155
Shevell, S. (2003). The Science of Color. New York, NY: Elsevier Science.
10.1016/B978-044451251-2/50005-2 Google Scholar
- 156 Pathare, P.B., Opara, U.L., and Al-Said, F.A. (2013). Food Bioprocess Technol. 6 (1): 36–60.
- 157 McClements, D.J. (2002). Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 7 (5): 451–455.
- 158 Wyszecki, G. and Stiles, W.S. (2000). Color Science: Concepts and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae. New York, NY: Wiley.
- 159 Tkalcic, M. and Tasic, F. (2003). Color spaces: perceptual, historical and application background. Proceedings of the IEEE EUROCON Conference, Ljubljana, Slovenia, 304–308.
- 160 Chanamai, R. and McClements, D.J. (2001). Food Hydrocoll. 15 (1): 83–91.
- 161 Chantrapornchai, W., Clydesdale, F., and McClements, D.J. (1998). J. Agric. Food Chem. 46 (8): 2914–2920.
- 162 Chantrapornchai, W., Clydesdale, F., and McClements, D.J. (1999). J. Colloid Interface Sci. 218 (1): 324–330.
- 163 Chantrapornchai, W., Clydesdale, F.M., and McClements, D.J. (2001). Food Res. Int. 34 (9): 827–835.
- 164 Chantrapornchai, W., Clydesdale, F.M., and McClements, D.J. (2008). In: Color Quality of Fresh and Processed Foods, vol. 983, 364–387. American Chemical Society.
- 165 McClements, D.J., Chantrapornchai, W., and Clydesdale, F. (1998). J. Food Sci. 63 (6): 935–939.
- 166 Weiss, J. and McClements, D.J. (2001). J. Agric. Food Chem. 49 (9): 4372–4377.
- 167 Taylor, A.J. and Linforth, R.S.T. (1996). Trends Food Sci. Technol. 7 (12): 444–448.
- 168 van Aken, G.A., Vingerhoeds, M.H., and de Hoog, E.H.A. (2007). Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 12 (4): 251–262.
- 169 van Vliet, T., van Aken, G.A., de Jongh, H.H.J., and Hamer, R.J. (2009). Adv. Colloid Interf. Sci. 150 (1): 27–40.
- 170 Salles, C., Chagnon, M.-C., Feron, G. et al. (2010). Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 51 (1): 67–90.
- 171 Taylor, A.J. and Roozen, J.P. (1996). Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 36 (8): 765–784.
- 172 Chaudhari, N. and Roper, S.D. (2010). J. Cell Biol. 190 (3): 285–296.
- 173 Smith, D.V. and Margolskee, R.F. (2006). Sci. Am. 85–92.
- 174 Benjamin, O., Leus, M., and Everett, D.W. (2011). Food Res. Int. 44 (1): 417–424.
- 175 Benjamin, O., Silcock, P., Beauchamp, J. et al. (2014). J. Food Sci. 79 (10): E2014–E2022.
- 176 Bayarri, S., Taylor, A.J., and Hort, J. (2006). J. Agric. Food Chem. 54 (23): 8862–8868.
- 177 Frank, D., Appelqvist, I., Piyasiri, U. et al. (2011). J. Agric. Food Chem. 59: 4891–4903.
- 178 McClements, D. and Demetriades, K. (1998). Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 38 (6): 511–536.
- 179 Kuhn, J., Zhu, X.Q., Considine, T., and Singh, H. (2007). J. Agric. Food Chem. 55: 3599–3604.
- 180 Mao, L., Roos, Y.H., Biliaderis, C.G., and Miao, S. (2017). Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 57 (15): 3173–3187.
- 181 Harrison, M. and Hills, B.P. (1997). J. Agric. Food Chem. 45 (5): 1883–1890.
- 182 Lian, G.P., Malone, M.E., Homan, J.E., and Norton, I.T. (2004). J. Control. Release 98: 139–155.
- 183 Anvari, M. and Joyner, H.S. (2017). Food Hydrocoll. 72: 11–26.
- 184 McClements, D.J. (2007). Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 47 (7): 611–649.
- 185 Meyers, R.A. (2000). Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry: Applications, Theory and Instrumentation. New York, NY: Wiley.
- 186 Lu, J. and Corvalan, C.M. (2016). Curr. Opin. Food Sci. 9: 112–116.
- 187
Bernewitz, R., Guthausen, G., and Schuchmann, H. (2016). In: Imaging Technologies and Data Processing for Food Engineers (ed. N. Sozer), 69–98. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
10.1007/978-3-319-24735-9_3 Google Scholar
- 188 Gunning, A.P. and Morris, V.J. (2018). Food Hydrocoll. 78: 62–76.
- 189
Gunning, A.P. (2013). In: Food Microstructures: Microscopy, Measurement and Modelling (ed. V.J. Morris and K. Groves), 62–95. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing.
10.1533/9780857098894.1.62 Google Scholar
- 190 Alhassawi, F.M., Corradini, M.G., Rogers, M.A., and Ludescher, R.D. (2017). Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.
- 191 Jarzębski, M., Bellich, B., Białopiotrowicz, T. et al. (2017). Food Hydrocoll. 68: 90–101.
- 192
Morris, V.J. (2013). In: Food Microstructures: Microscopy, Measurement and Modelling (ed. V.J. Morris and K. Groves), 27–61. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing.
10.1533/9780857098894.1.27 Google Scholar
- 193 Morris, V.J., Woodward, N.C., and Gunning, A.P. (2011). J. Sci. Food Agric. 91 (12): 2117–2125.
- 194 Moschakis, T. (2013). Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 18 (4): 311–323.
- 195
Wellner, N. (2013). In: Food Microstructures: Microscopy, Measurement and Modelling (ed. K. Groves), 163–191. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing.
10.1533/9780857098894.1.163 Google Scholar
- 196 Dickinson, E. (2016). Food Hydrocoll. 52: 497–509.
- 197 Lamorgese, A., Mauri, R., and Sagis, L.M.C. (2017). Phys. Rep. 675: 1–54.
- 198 Marangoni, A.G. (2000). Phys. Rev. A 62: 13951–13955.
