Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS): from mechanistic insights to therapeutic strategies
Rongli Xie,
Dan Tan,
Boke Liu,
Guohui Xiao,
Fangchen Gong,
Qiyao Zhang,
Lei Qi,
Sisi Zheng,
Yuanyang Yuan,
Zhitao Yang,
Ying Chen,
Jian Fei,
Dan Xu,
Rongli Xie
Department of General Surgery, Ruijin Hospital Lu Wan Branch, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Rongli Xie, Dan Tan, Boke Liu, Guohui Xiao, and Fangchen Gong contributed equally to this work.
Search for more papers by this authorDan Tan
Department of General Surgery, Ruijin Hospital Lu Wan Branch, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Rongli Xie, Dan Tan, Boke Liu, Guohui Xiao, and Fangchen Gong contributed equally to this work.
Search for more papers by this authorBoke Liu
Department of Urology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Rongli Xie, Dan Tan, Boke Liu, Guohui Xiao, and Fangchen Gong contributed equally to this work.
Search for more papers by this authorGuohui Xiao
Department of General Surgery, Pancreatic Disease Center, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Rongli Xie, Dan Tan, Boke Liu, Guohui Xiao, and Fangchen Gong contributed equally to this work.
Search for more papers by this authorFangchen Gong
Department of Emergency, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Rongli Xie, Dan Tan, Boke Liu, Guohui Xiao, and Fangchen Gong contributed equally to this work.
Search for more papers by this authorQiyao Zhang
Department of Radiology, Södersjukhuset (Southern Hospital), Stockholm, Sweden
Search for more papers by this authorLei Qi
Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSisi Zheng
Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
Search for more papers by this authorYuanyang Yuan
Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Zhitao Yang
Department of Emergency, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Correspondence
Zhitao Yang, Ying Chen, and Dan Xu, Department of Emergency, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
Email: [email protected], [email protected], and [email protected]
Jian Fei, Department of General Surgery, Pancreatic Disease Center, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Ying Chen
Department of Emergency, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Correspondence
Zhitao Yang, Ying Chen, and Dan Xu, Department of Emergency, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
Email: [email protected], [email protected], and [email protected]
Jian Fei, Department of General Surgery, Pancreatic Disease Center, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Jian Fei
Department of General Surgery, Pancreatic Disease Center, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Correspondence
Zhitao Yang, Ying Chen, and Dan Xu, Department of Emergency, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
Email: [email protected], [email protected], and [email protected]
Jian Fei, Department of General Surgery, Pancreatic Disease Center, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Dan Xu
Department of Emergency, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Correspondence
Zhitao Yang, Ying Chen, and Dan Xu, Department of Emergency, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
Email: [email protected], [email protected], and [email protected]
Jian Fei, Department of General Surgery, Pancreatic Disease Center, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorRongli Xie,
Dan Tan,
Boke Liu,
Guohui Xiao,
Fangchen Gong,
Qiyao Zhang,
Lei Qi,
Sisi Zheng,
Yuanyang Yuan,
Zhitao Yang,
Ying Chen,
Jian Fei,
Dan Xu,
Rongli Xie
Department of General Surgery, Ruijin Hospital Lu Wan Branch, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Rongli Xie, Dan Tan, Boke Liu, Guohui Xiao, and Fangchen Gong contributed equally to this work.
Search for more papers by this authorDan Tan
Department of General Surgery, Ruijin Hospital Lu Wan Branch, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Rongli Xie, Dan Tan, Boke Liu, Guohui Xiao, and Fangchen Gong contributed equally to this work.
Search for more papers by this authorBoke Liu
Department of Urology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Rongli Xie, Dan Tan, Boke Liu, Guohui Xiao, and Fangchen Gong contributed equally to this work.
Search for more papers by this authorGuohui Xiao
Department of General Surgery, Pancreatic Disease Center, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Rongli Xie, Dan Tan, Boke Liu, Guohui Xiao, and Fangchen Gong contributed equally to this work.
Search for more papers by this authorFangchen Gong
Department of Emergency, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Rongli Xie, Dan Tan, Boke Liu, Guohui Xiao, and Fangchen Gong contributed equally to this work.
Search for more papers by this authorQiyao Zhang
Department of Radiology, Södersjukhuset (Southern Hospital), Stockholm, Sweden
Search for more papers by this authorLei Qi
Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSisi Zheng
Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
Search for more papers by this authorYuanyang Yuan
Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Zhitao Yang
Department of Emergency, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Correspondence
Zhitao Yang, Ying Chen, and Dan Xu, Department of Emergency, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
Email: [email protected], [email protected], and [email protected]
Jian Fei, Department of General Surgery, Pancreatic Disease Center, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Ying Chen
Department of Emergency, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Correspondence
Zhitao Yang, Ying Chen, and Dan Xu, Department of Emergency, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
Email: [email protected], [email protected], and [email protected]
Jian Fei, Department of General Surgery, Pancreatic Disease Center, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Jian Fei
Department of General Surgery, Pancreatic Disease Center, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Correspondence
Zhitao Yang, Ying Chen, and Dan Xu, Department of Emergency, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
Email: [email protected], [email protected], and [email protected]
Jian Fei, Department of General Surgery, Pancreatic Disease Center, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Dan Xu
Department of Emergency, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Correspondence
Zhitao Yang, Ying Chen, and Dan Xu, Department of Emergency, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
Email: [email protected], [email protected], and [email protected]
Jian Fei, Department of General Surgery, Pancreatic Disease Center, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a clinical syndrome of acute hypoxic respiratory failure caused by diffuse lung inflammation and edema. ARDS can be precipitated by intrapulmonary factors or extrapulmonary factors, which can lead to severe hypoxemia. Patients suffering from ARDS have high mortality rates, including a 28-day mortality rate of 34.8% and an overall in-hospital mortality rate of 40.0%. The pathophysiology of ARDS is complex and involves the activation and dysregulation of multiple overlapping and interacting pathways of systemic inflammation and coagulation, including the respiratory system, circulatory system, and immune system. In general, the treatment of inflammatory injuries is a coordinated process that involves the downregulation of proinflammatory pathways and the upregulation of anti-inflammatory pathways. Given the complexity of the underlying disease, treatment needs to be tailored to the problem. Hence, we discuss the pathogenesis and treatment methods of affected organs, including 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19)-related pneumonia, drowning, trauma, blood transfusion, severe acute pancreatitis, and sepsis. This review is intended to provide a new perspective concerning ARDS and offer novel insight into future therapeutic interventions.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Open Research
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The datasets analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
REFERENCES
- 1Giannakoulis VG, Schenck EJ, Papoutsi E, et al. Early mortality in clinical trials of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2024; 210(2): 236-239.
- 2Bellani G, Laffey JG, Pham T, et al. Epidemiology, patterns of care, and mortality for patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome in intensive care units in 50 countries. JAMA. 2016; 315(8): 788-800.
- 3Wick KD, Matthay MA, Ware LB. Pulse oximetry for the diagnosis and management of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Lancet Respir Med. 2022; 10(11): 1086-1098.
- 4Matthay MA, Arabi Y, Arroliga AC, et al. A new global definition of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2023; 209(1): 37-47.
- 5Force ADT, Ranieri VM, Rubenfeld GD, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: the Berlin definition. JAMA. 2012; 307(23): 2526-2533.
- 6Hsia CCW, Hyde DM, Weibel ER. Lung structure and the intrinsic challenges of gas exchange. Compr Physiol. 2016; 6(2): 827-895.
- 7Staub NC. The interdependence of pulmonary structure and function. Anesthesiology. 1963; 24(6): 831-854.
- 8Gorman EA, O'Kane CM, McAuley DF. Acute respiratory distress syndrome in adults: diagnosis, outcomes, long-term sequelae, and management. Lancet. 2022; 400(10358): 1157-1170.
- 9Matthay MA. Resolution of pulmonary edema. Thirty years of progress. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014; 189(11): 1301-1308.
- 10Bachofen M, Weibel ER. Structural alterations of lung parenchyma in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Clin Chest Med. 1982; 3: 35-56.
- 11Huppert LA, Matthay MA, Ware LB. Pathogenesis of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2019; 40(01): 31-39.
- 12Vestweber D. VE-cadherin: the major endothelial adhesion molecule controlling cellular junctions and blood vessel formation. Arter Thromb Vasc Biol. 2007; 28(2): 223-232.
- 13Matthay MA, Zemans RL, Zimmerman GA, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome. Nat Rev Dis Prim. 2019; 5(1): 18.
- 14Tao H, Xu Y, Zhang S. The role of macrophages and alveolar epithelial cells in the development of ARDS. Inflammation. 2023; 46(1): 47-55.
- 15Bachofen M, Weibel ER. Alterations of the gas exchange apparatus in adult respiratory insufficiency associated with septicemia. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1977; 116(4): 589-615.
- 16Matthay MA, Zimmerman GA, Esmon C, et al. Future research directions in acute lung injury: summary of a National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute working group. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003; 167(7): 1027-1035.
- 17Matthay MA, Zimmerman GA. Acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome: four decades of inquiry into pathogenesis and rational management. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2005; 33(4): 319-327.
- 18Vestweber D, Winderlich M, Cagna G, Nottebaum AF. Cell adhesion dynamics at endothelial junctions: VE-cadherin as a major player. Trends Cell Biol. 2009; 19(1): 8-15.
- 19Matthay MA, Ware LB, Zimmerman GA. The acute respiratory distress syndrome. J Clin Investig. 2012; 122(8): 2731-2740.
- 20Matthay MA, Folkesson HG, Clerici C. Lung epithelial fluid transport and the resolution of pulmonary edema. Physiol Rev. 2002; 82(3): 569-600.
- 21Fan E, Brodie D, Slutsky AS. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: advances in diagnosis and treatment. JAMA. 2018; 319(7): 698-710.
- 22Pelosi P, D'Onofrio D, Chiumello D, et al. Pulmonary and extrapulmonary acute respiratory distress syndrome are different. Eur Respir J. 2003; 42(suppl 42): 48s-56s.
- 23Peukert K, Fox M, Schulz S, et al. Inhibition of caspase-1 with tetracycline ameliorates acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2021; 204(1): 53-63.
- 24Calfee CS, Janz DR, Bernard GR, et al. Distinct molecular phenotypes of direct vs indirect ARDS in single-center and multicenter studies. Chest. 2015; 147(6): 1539-1548.
- 25Bos LDJ, Ware LB. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: causes, pathophysiology, and phenotypes. Lancet. 2022; 400(10358): 1145-1156.
- 26Tolle LB, Standiford TJ. Danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) in acute lung injury. J Pathol. 2013; 229(2): 145-156.
- 27Bastarache JA, Wang L, Wang Z, Albertine KH, Matthay MA, Ware LB. Intra-alveolar tissue factor pathway inhibitor is not sufficient to block tissue factor procoagulant activity. Am J Physiol-Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2008; 294(5): L874-L881.
- 28Crouch E, Wright JR. Surfactant proteins a and d and pulmonary host defense. Annu Rev Physiol. 2001; 63(1): 521-554.
- 29Katzenstein AL, Bloor CM, Leibow AA. Diffuse alveolar damage—the role of oxygen, shock, and related factors. A review. Am J Pathol. 1976; 85: 209-228.
- 30Cardinal-Fernández P, Lorente JA, Ballén-Barragán A, Matute-Bello G. Acute respiratory distress syndrome and diffuse alveolar damage. New insights on a complex relationship. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2017; 14(6): 844-850.
- 31Tomashefski Jr JF. Pulmonary pathology of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Clin Chest Med. 2000; 21(3): 435-466.
- 32Thille AW, Esteban A, Fernández-Segoviano P, et al. Chronology of histological lesions in acute respiratory distress syndrome with diffuse alveolar damage: a prospective cohort study of clinical autopsies. Lancet Respir Med. 2013; 1(5): 395-401.
- 33Bastarache JA, Fremont RD, Kropski JA, Bossert FR, Ware LB. Procoagulant alveolar microparticles in the lungs of patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Physiol-Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2009; 297(6): L1035-L1041.
- 34Schmidt EP, Yang Y, Janssen WJ, et al. The pulmonary endothelial glycocalyx regulates neutrophil adhesion and lung injury during experimental sepsis. Nat Med. 2012; 18(8): 1217-1223.
- 35Saki N, Javan M, Moghimian-Boroujeni B, Kast RE. Interesting effects of interleukins and immune cells on acute respiratory distress syndrome. Clin Exp Med. 2023; 23(7): 2979-2996.
- 36Zhang S, Duitman J, Artigas A, Bos LDJ. The complex immune cell composition and cellular interaction in the alveolar compartment of patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir cell Mol Biol. 2024. Online ahead of print.
10.1165/rcmb.2024-0176TR Google Scholar
- 37Herold S, Mayer K, Lohmeyer J. Acute lung injury: how macrophages orchestrate resolution of inflammation and tissue repair. Front Immunol. 2011; 2: 65.
- 38Li D, Wu M. Pattern recognition receptors in health and diseases. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2021; 6(1): 291.
- 39Thorley AJ, Ford PA, Giembycz MA, Goldstraw P, Young A, Tetley TD. Differential regulation of cytokine release and leukocyte migration by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated primary human lung alveolar type II epithelial cells and macrophages. J Immunol. 2007; 178(1): 463-473.
- 40Aggarwal NR, King LS, D'Alessio FR. Diverse macrophage populations mediate acute lung inflammation and resolution. Am J Physiol-Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2014; 306(8): L709-L725.
- 41Balamayooran G, Batra S, Fessler MB, Happel KI, Jeyaseelan S. Mechanisms of neutrophil accumulation in the lungs against bacteria. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2010; 43(1): 5-16.
- 42Lin WC, Fessler MB. Regulatory mechanisms of neutrophil migration from the circulation to the airspace. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2021; 78(9): 4095-4124.
- 43Zhou K, Lu J. Progress in cytokine research for ARDS: a comprehensive review. Open Med. 2024; 19(1):20241076.
- 44Poynter ME, Irvin CG, Janssen-Heininger YM. A prominent role for airway epithelial NF-kappa B activation in lipopolysaccharide-induced airway inflammation. J Immunol. 2003; 170(12): 6257-6265.
- 45Skerrett SJ, Liggitt HD, Hajjar AM, Ernst RK, Miller SI, Wilson CB. Respiratory epithelial cells regulate lung inflammation in response to inhaled endotoxin. Am J Physiol-Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2004; 287(1): L143-L152.
- 46Quinton LJ, Jones MR, Simms BT, et al. Functions and regulation of NF-kappaB RelA during pneumococcal pneumonia. J Immunol. 2007; 178(3): 1896-1903.
- 47Wu YH, Mo ST, Chen IT, et al. Caspase-8 inactivation drives autophagy-dependent inflammasome activation in myeloid cells. Sci Adv. 2022; 8(45):eabn9912.
- 48McElvaney OJ, Curley GF, Rose-John S, McElvaney NG. Interleukin-6: obstacles to targeting a complex cytokine in critical illness. Lancet Respir Med. 2021; 9(6): 643-654.
- 49Liew FY, Girard JP, Turnquist HR. Interleukin-33 in health and disease. Nat Rev Immunol. 2016; 16(11): 676-689.
- 50Zhang ZT, Zhang DY, Xie K, Wang CJ, Xu F. Luteolin activates Tregs to promote IL-10 expression and alleviating caspase-11-dependent pyroptosis in sepsis-induced lung injury. Int Immunopharmacol. 2021; 99:107914.
- 51Fang S, Ju D, Lin Y, Chen W. The role of interleukin-22 in lung health and its therapeutic potential for COVID-19. Front Immunol. 2022; 13:951107.
- 52Allen JE. IL-4 and IL-13: regulators and effectors of wound repair. Annu Rev Immunol. 2023; 41(1): 229-254.
- 53Ge R, Wang F, Peng Z. Advances in biomarkers for diagnosis and treatment of ARDS. Diagnostics. 2023; 13(21): 3296.
- 54Hughes CE, Nibbs RJB. A guide to chemokines and their receptors. FEBS J. 2018; 285(16): 2944-2971.
- 55Yang Q, Luo Y, Lan B, et al. Fighting fire with fire: exosomes and acute pancreatitis-associated acute lung injury. Bioengineering. 2022; 9(11): 615.
- 56Hu ZJ, Xu J, Yin JM, et al. Lower circulating interferon-gamma is a risk factor for lung fibrosis in COVID-19 patients. Front Immunol. 2020; 11:585647.
- 57Mannes PZ, Barnes CE, Biermann J, et al. Molecular imaging of chemokine-like receptor 1 (CMKLR1) in experimental acute lung injury. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2023; 120(3):e2216458120.
- 58Audi SH, Taheri P, Zhao M, Hu K, Jacobs ER, Clough AV. In vivo molecular imaging stratifies rats with different susceptibilities to hyperoxic acute lung injury. Am J Physiol-Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2022; 323(4): L410-L422.
- 59Tsolaki V, Zakynthinos GE, Mantzarlis K, Vazgiourakis V, Makris D. Pathophysiology of COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome. Lancet Respir Med. 2021; 9(1):e2.
- 60Ziehr DR, Alladina J, Petri CR, et al. Respiratory pathophysiology of mechanically ventilated patients with COVID-19: a cohort study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2020; 201(ja): 1560-1564.
- 61Eckermann M, Frohn J, Reichardt M, et al. 3D virtual pathohistology of lung tissue from Covid-19 patients based on phase contrast X-ray tomography. eLife. 2020; 9:e60408.
- 62Brault C, Zerbib Y, Kontar L, et al. COVID-19- versus non-COVID-19-related acute respiratory distress syndrome: differences and similarities. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2020; 202(9): 1301-1304.
- 63Welker C, Huang J, Gil IJN, Ramakrishna H. 2021 acute respiratory distress syndrome update, with coronavirus disease 2019 focus. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2022; 36(4): 1188-1195.
- 64Klok FA, Kruip M, van der Meer NJM, et al. Confirmation of the high cumulative incidence of thrombotic complications in critically ill ICU patients with COVID-19: an updated analysis. Thromb Res. 2020; 191: 148-150.
- 65Xu ZS, Shu T, Kang L, et al. Temporal profiling of plasma cytokines, chemokines and growth factors from mild, severe and fatal COVID-19 patients. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2020; 5(1): 100.
- 66Grasselli G, Tonetti T, Protti A, et al. Pathophysiology of COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome: a multicentre prospective observational study. Lancet Respir Med. 2020; 8(12): 1201-1208.
- 67Horby P, Lim WS, Emberson JR, et al. Dexamethasone in hospitalized patients with Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2021; 384(8): 693-704.
- 68Sterne JAC, Murthy S, Diaz JV, et al. Association between administration of systemic corticosteroids and mortality among critically ill patients with COVID-19: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2020; 324(13): 1330-1341.
- 69Šitum I, Hrvoić L, Erceg A, et al. CPAP vs HFNC in treatment of patients with COVID-19 ARDS: a retrospective propensity-matched study. Can J Respir Ther: CJRT Rev Can Thérapie Respir : RCTR. 2024; 60: 164-172.
- 70Bowdish ME, Barkauskas CE, Overbey JR, et al. A randomized trial of mesenchymal stromal cells for moderate to severe acute respiratory distress syndrome from COVID-19. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2023; 207(3): 261-270.
- 71Babajani A, Moeinabadi-Bidgoli K, Niknejad F, et al. Human placenta-derived amniotic epithelial cells as a new therapeutic hope for COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and systemic inflammation. Stem Cell Res Ther. 2022; 13(1): 126.
- 72Hippisley-Cox J, Patone M, Mei XW, et al. Risk of thrombocytopenia and thromboembolism after covid-19 vaccination and SARS-CoV-2 positive testing: self-controlled case series study. BMJ. 2021; 374:n1931.
- 73Barda N, Dagan N, Ben-Shlomo Y, et al. Safety of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 vaccine in a nationwide setting. N Engl J Med. 2021; 385(12): 1078-1090.
- 74Kawano F, Kato M, Tsuchida Y, Okawa J, Arimoto H. Acute respiratory distress syndrome after severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) vaccination: findings from an autopsy. Cureus. 2024; 16(9):e70370.
- 75van Beeck EF, Branche CM, Szpilman D, Modell JH, Bierens JJLM. A new definition of drowning: towards documentation and prevention of a global public health problem. Bull World Heal Organ. 2005; 83(11): 853-856.
- 76Szpilman D, Morgan PJ. Management for the drowning patient. Chest. 2021; 159(4): 1473-1483.
- 77Abelairas-Gómez C, Tipton MJ, González-Salvado V, Bierens JJ. Drowning: epidemiology, prevention, pathophysiology, resuscitation, and hospital treatment. Emerg: Rev Soc Espanola Med Emerg. 2019; 31(4): 270-280.
- 78Rubenfeld GD, Caldwell E, Peabody E, et al. Incidence and outcomes of acute lung injury. N Engl J Med. 2005; 353(16): 1685-1693.
- 79Ramin S, Arcelli M, Bouchdoug K, et al. Driving pressure is not predictive of ARDS outcome in chest trauma patients under mechanical ventilation. Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med. 2022; 41(4):101095.
- 80Chou RL, Grigorian A, Nahmias J, Schubl SD, Delaplain PT, Barrios C. Racial disparities in adult blunt trauma patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. J Intensiv Care Med. 2020; 36(5): 584-588.
- 81Seder DB. Implications of structural brain injury in ARDS. Neurocrit Care. 2024; 40(1): 40-41.
- 82Ziaka M, Exadaktylos A. Brain–lung interactions and mechanical ventilation in patients with isolated brain injury. Crit Care. 2021; 25(1): 358.
- 83Frisvold S, Coppola S, Ehrmann S, Chiumello D, Guérin C. Respiratory challenges and ventilatory management in different types of acute brain-injured patients. Crit Care. 2023; 27(1): 247.
- 84Kim JA, Wahlster S, LaBuzetta JN, et al. Focused management of patients with severe acute brain injury and ARDS. Chest. 2022; 161(1): 140-151.
- 85Blanch L, Quintel M. Lung–brain cross talk in the critically ill. Intensiv Care Med. 2017; 43(4): 557-559.
- 86Stevens RD, Puybasset L. The brain–lung–brain axis. Intensiv Care Med. 2011; 37(7): 1054-1056.
- 87Kim JT, Song K, Han SW, et al. Modeling of the brain-lung axis using organoids in traumatic brain injury: an updated review. Cell Biosci. 2024; 14(1): 83.
- 88Lim SH, Jung H, Youn DH, et al. Mild traumatic brain injury and subsequent acute pulmonary inflammatory response. J Korean Neurosurg Soc. 2022; 65(5): 680-687.
- 89Hsieh PC, Wu YK, Yang MC, Su WL, Kuo CY, Lan CC. Deciphering the role of damage-associated molecular patterns and inflammatory responses in acute lung injury. Life Sci. 2022; 305:120782.
- 90Sweeney MD, Zhao Z, Montagne A, Nelson AR, Zlokovic BV. Blood-brain barrier: from physiology to disease and back. Physiol Rev. 2019; 99(1): 21-78.
- 91Das M, Leonardo CC, Rangooni S, Pennypacker KR, Mohapatra S, Mohapatra SS. Lateral fluid percussion injury of the brain induces CCL20 inflammatory chemokine expression in rats. J Neuroinflamm. 2011; 8(1): 148-148.
- 92Das M, Mayilsamy K, Tang X, et al. Pioglitazone treatment prior to transplantation improves the efficacy of human mesenchymal stem cells after traumatic brain injury in rats. Sci Rep. 2019; 9(1):13646.
- 93Azzoni R, Marsland BJ. The lung-brain axis: a new frontier in host-microbe interactions. Immunity. 2022; 55(4): 589-591.
- 94Ziaka M, Exadaktylos A. Pathophysiology of acute lung injury in patients with acute brain injury: the triple-hit hypothesis. Crit Care. 2024; 28(1): 71.
- 95Hosang L, Canals RC, van der Flier FJ, et al. The lung microbiome regulates brain autoimmunity. Nature. 2022; 603(7899): 138-144.
- 96Enaud R, Prevel R, Ciarlo E, et al. The gut-lung axis in health and respiratory diseases: a place for inter-organ and inter-kingdom crosstalks. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2020; 10: 9.
- 97Teichman EM, O'Riordan KJ, Gahan CGM, Dinan TG, Cryan JF. When rhythms meet the blues: circadian interactions with the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Cell Metab. 2020; 31(3): 448-471.
- 98Gall AL, Eustache G, Coquet A, Seguin P, Launey Y. End-tidal carbon dioxide and arterial to end-tidal carbon dioxide gradient are associated with mortality in patients with neurological injuries. Sci Rep. 2024; 14(1):19172.
- 99Sinha P, Delucchi KL, McAuley DF, O'Kane CM, Matthay MA, Calfee CS. Development and validation of parsimonious algorithms to classify acute respiratory distress syndrome phenotypes: a secondary analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet Respir Med. 2020; 8(3): 247-257.
- 100Robba C, Poole D, McNett M, et al. Mechanical ventilation in patients with acute brain injury: recommendations of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine consensus. Intensiv Care Med. 2020; 46(12): 2397-2410.
- 101Papazian L, Munshi L, Guérin C. Prone position in mechanically ventilated patients. Intensiv Care Med. 2022; 48(8): 1062-1065.
- 102Fujishima S. Guideline-based management of acute respiratory failure and acute respiratory distress syndrome. J Intensiv Care. 2023; 11(1): 10.
- 103Schmidt M, Hajage D, Lebreton G, et al. Prone positioning during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in patients with severe ARDS. JAMA. 2023; 330(24): 2343-2353.
- 104Scholten EL, Beitler JR, Prisk GK, Malhotra A. Treatment of ARDS with prone positioning. Chest. 2017; 151(1): 215-224.
- 105Guérin C, Albert RK, Beitler J, et al. Prone position in ARDS patients: why, when, how and for whom. Intensiv Care Med. 2020; 46(12): 2385-2396.
- 106Rampon GL, Simpson SQ, Agrawal R. Prone positioning for acute hypoxemic respiratory failure and ARDS. Chest. 2023; 163(2): 332-340.
- 107Kharat A, Simon M, Guérin C. Prone position in COVID 19-associated acute respiratory failure. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2022; 28(1): 57-65.
- 108Fossali T, Pavlovsky B, Ottolina D, et al. Effects of prone position on lung recruitment and ventilation-perfusion matching in patients with COVID-19 acute respiratory distress syndrome: a combined CT scan/electrical impedance tomography study. Crit Care Med. 2022; 50(5): 723-732.
- 109Dabrowski W, Siwicka-Gieroba D, Robba C, Badenes R, Malbrain MLNG. The prone position must accommodate changes in IAP in traumatic brain injury patients. Crit Care. 2021; 25(1): 132.
- 110Vernocchi P, Chierico FD, Putignani L. Gut microbiota metabolism and interaction with food components. Int J Mol Sci. 2020; 21(10): 3688.
- 111Du D, Tang W, Zhou C, et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation is a promising method to restore gut microbiota dysbiosis and relieve neurological deficits after traumatic brain injury. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2021; 2021(1):5816837.
- 112Guha L, Agnihotri TG, Jain A, Kumar H. Gut microbiota and traumatic central nervous system injuries: insights into pathophysiology and therapeutic approaches. Life Sci. 2023; 334:122193.
- 113Hu T, Zhu Y, Zhou X, et al. Baicalein ameliorates SEB-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome in a microbiota-dependent manner. Phytomedicine. 2024; 135:156049.
- 114Hanalioglu D, Temkit M'H, Hildebrandt K, et al. Neurophysiologic features reflecting brain injury during pediatric ECMO support. Neurocrit Care. 2024; 40(2): 759-768.
- 115Khanduja S, Kim J, Kang JK, et al. Hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in ECMO: pathophysiology, neuromonitoring, and therapeutic opportunities. Cells. 2023; 12(11): 1546.
- 116Salazar L, Arora L, Botia M, et al. Somatic support with veno-venous ECMO in a pregnant woman with brain death: a case report. ASAIO J. 2022; 68(1): e16-e18.
- 117Ramin S, Charbit J, Jaber S, Capdevila X. Acute respiratory distress syndrome after chest trauma: epidemiology, specific physiopathology and ventilation strategies. Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med. 2019; 38(3): 265-276.
- 118Suresh MV, Aktay S, Yalamanchili G, et al. Role of succinate in airway epithelial cell regulation following traumatic lung injury. JCI Insight. 2023; 8(18):e166860.
- 119Kaczka DW. Oscillatory ventilation redux: alternative perspectives on ventilator-induced lung injury in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Curr Opin Physiol. 2021; 21: 36-43.
- 120Network ARDS, Brower RG, Matthay MA, et al. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2000; 342(18): 1301-1308.
- 121Carrié C, Rieu B, Benard A, et al. Early non-invasive ventilation and high-flow nasal oxygen therapy for preventing endotracheal intubation in hypoxemic blunt chest trauma patients: the OptiTHO randomized trial. Crit Care. 2023; 27(1): 163.
- 122Choperena GA, Fernández JC, Usabiaga VG, Nuño AU, Calvete PR, Jiménez JC. Abdominal trauma. Radiologia. 2022; 65(suppl 1): S32-S41.
- 123Wang Z, Liu J, Li F, et al. The gut-lung axis in severe acute pancreatitis-associated lung injury: the protection by the gut microbiota through short-chain fatty acids. Pharmacol Res. 2022; 182:106321.
- 124Li X, Shimizu Y, Kimura I. Gut microbial metabolite short-chain fatty acids and obesity. Biosci Microbiota Food Heal. 2017; 36(4): 135-140.
- 125Alsharairi NA. Therapeutic potential of gut microbiota and its metabolite short-chain fatty acids in neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis. Life. 2023; 13(2): 561.
- 126de Vos WM, Tilg H, Hul MV, Cani PD. Gut microbiome and health: mechanistic insights. Gut. 2022; 71(5): 1020-1032.
- 127Cheng P, Li S, Chen H. Macrophages in lung injury, repair, and fibrosis. Cells. 2021; 10(2): 436.
- 128Varon J, Englert JA. Kidney-lung cross talk during ARDS: mitochondrial DAMPs join the conversation. Am J Physiol-Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2021; 320(5): L819-L820.
- 129Hepokoski M, Wang J, Li K, et al. Altered lung metabolism and mitochondrial DAMPs in lung injury due to acute kidney injury. Am J Physiol-Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2021; 320(5): L821-L831.
- 130Faubel S, Edelstein CL. Mechanisms and mediators of lung injury after acute kidney injury. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2016; 12(1): 48-60.
- 131Galaris A, Fanidis D, Stylianaki EA, et al. Obesity reshapes the microbial population structure along the gut-liver-lung axis in mice. Biomedicines. 2022; 10(2): 494.
- 132Ge Y, Wang X, Guo Y, et al. Gut microbiota influence tumor development and alter interactions with the human immune system. J Exp Clin Cancer Res. 2021; 40(1): 42.
- 133Tran A, Fernando SM, Brochard LJ, et al. Prognostic factors for development of acute respiratory distress syndrome following traumatic injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Respir J. 2022; 59(4):2100857.
- 134Matute-Bello G, Frevert CW, Martin TR. Animal models of acute lung injury. Am J Physiol - Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2008; 295(3): L379-L399.
- 135Newbigin K, Souza CA, Torres C, et al. Fat embolism syndrome: state-of-the-art review focused on pulmonary imaging findings. Respir Med. 2016; 113: 93-100.
- 136Malagari K, Economopoulos N, Stoupis C, et al. High-resolution CT findings in mild pulmonary fat embolism. Chest. 2003; 123(4): 1196-1201.
- 137Brande FGJVD, Hellemans S, Schepper AD, et al. Post-traumatic severe fat embolism syndrome with uncommon CT findings. Anaesth Intensiv Care. 2005; 34(1): 102-106.
10.1177/0310057X0603400120 Google Scholar
- 138Gutiérrez-Guisado J, Calvo-Sotelo AE, Hernández-Blasco L, et al. Venous thromboembolism (VTE) developing after ankle sprain. Comparison with VTE after knee arthroplasty. Thromb Res. 2024; 237: 94-99.
- 139Navarrete S, Solar C, Tapia R, Pereira J, Fuentes E, Palomo I. Pathophysiology of deep vein thrombosis. Clin Exp Med. 2023; 23(3): 645-654.
- 140Ramli NN, Iberahim S, Noor NHM, et al. Haemostasis and inflammatory parameters as potential diagnostic biomarkers for VTE in trauma-immobilized patients. Diagnostics. 2023; 13(1): 150.
- 141Kulka HC, Zeller A, Fornaro J, Wuillemin WA, Konstantinides S, Christ M. Acute pulmonary embolism—its diagnosis and treatment from a multidisciplinary viewpoint. Dtsch Arzteblatt Int. 2021; 118(forthcoming): 618-628.
- 142Westafer LM, Long B, Gottlieb M. Managing pulmonary embolism. Ann Emerg Med. 2023; 82(3): 394-402.
- 143Huisman MV, Barco S, Cannegieter SC, et al. Pulmonary embolism. Nat Rev Dis Prim. 2018; 4(1):18028.
- 144Semple JW, Rebetz J, Kapur R. Transfusion-associated circulatory overload and transfusion-related acute lung injury. Blood. 2019; 133(17): 1840-1853.
- 145van der Velden S, van Osch TLJ, Seghier A, et al. Complement activation drives antibody-mediated transfusion-related acute lung injury via macrophage trafficking and formation of NETs. Blood. 2024; 143(1): 79-91.
- 146Hu L, Wang B, Jiang Y, et al. Risk factors for transfusion-related acute lung injury. Respir Care. 2021; 66(6): 1029-1038.
- 147van Wonderen SF, Klanderman RB, Vlaar APJ. Understanding transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) and its complex pathophysiology. Blood Transfus Trasfus del sangue. 2022; 20(6): 443-445.
- 148Kuebler WM, William N, Post M, Acker JP, McVey MJ. Extracellular vesicles: effectors of transfusion-related acute lung injury. Am J Physiol-Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2023; 325(3): L327-L341.
- 149Kroschinsky F, Stölzel F, Bonin S von, et al. New drugs, new toxicities: severe side effects of modern targeted and immunotherapy of cancer and their management. Crit Care. 2017; 21(1): 89.
- 150Darnell EP, Mooradian MJ, Baruch EN, Yilmaz M, Reynolds KL. Immune-related adverse events (irAEs): diagnosis, management, and clinical pearls. Curr Oncol Rep. 2020; 22(4): 39.
- 151Gomatou G, Tzilas V, Kotteas E, Syrigos K, Bouros D. Immune checkpoint inhibitor-related pneumonitis. Respiration. 2021; 99(11): 932-942.
- 152Atchley WT, Alvarez C, Saxena-Beem S, et al. Immune checkpoint inhibitor-related pneumonitis in lung cancer real-world incidence, risk factors, and management practices across six health care centers in North Carolina. Chest. 2021; 160(2): 731-742.
- 153Lin X, Deng J, Deng H, et al. Comprehensive analysis of the immune microenvironment in checkpoint inhibitor pneumonitis. Front Immunol. 2022; 12:818492.
- 154Ghanbar MI, Suresh K. Pulmonary toxicity of immune checkpoint immunotherapy. J Clin Investig. 2024; 134(2):e170503.
- 155Park H, Hatabu H, Ricciuti B, Aijazi SJ, Awad MM, Nishino M. Immune-related adverse events on body CT in patients with small-cell lung cancer treated with immune-checkpoint inhibitors. Eur J Radiol. 2020; 132:109275.
- 156Picasso R, Cozzi A, Picasso V, et al. Immune checkpoint inhibitor-related pneumonitis and COVID-19: a case-matched comparison of CT findings. Radiol Med. 2023; 128(2): 212-221.
- 157Morrell ED, Holton SE, Wiedeman A, et al. PD-L1 and PD-1 are associated with clinical outcomes and alveolar immune cell activation in ARDS. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2024; 71(5): 534-545.
- 158Brahmer JR, Lacchetti C, Schneider BJ, et al. Management of immune-related adverse events in patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy: American Society of Clinical Oncology Clinical Practice guideline. J Clin Oncol. 2018; 36(17):JCO.2017.77.638.
- 159Schneider BJ, Naidoo J, Santomasso BD, et al. Management of immune-related adverse events in patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy: ASCO guideline update. J Clin Oncol. 2021; 39(36): 4073-4126.
- 160Wang J, Zhang B, Peng L, et al. Chinese expert consensus recommendations for the administration of immune checkpoint inhibitors to special cancer patient populations. Ther Adv Méd Oncol. 2023; 15:17588359231187204.
- 161Lin MX, Zang D, Liu CG, Han X, Chen J. Immune checkpoint inhibitor-related pneumonitis: research advances in prediction and management. Front Immunol. 2024; 15:1266850.
- 162Ando H, Suzuki K, Yanagihara T. Insights into potential pathogenesis and treatment options for immune-checkpoint inhibitor-related pneumonitis. Biomedicines. 2021; 9(10): 1484.
- 163Zhang Q, Tang L, Zhou Y, He W, Li W. Immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated pneumonitis in non-small cell lung cancer: current understanding in characteristics, diagnosis, and management. Front Immunol. 2021; 12:663986.
- 164Verheijden RJ, van Eijs MJM, May AM, van Wijk F, Suijkerbuijk KPM. Immunosuppression for immune-related adverse events during checkpoint inhibition: an intricate balance. NPJ Precis Oncol. 2023; 7(1): 41.
- 165Wang P, Xie R, Zhao Z, Ren J, Fei J. Postoperative hemorrhage caused by portal hypertension associated with autoimmune pancreatitis: a case report. Medicine. 2018; 97(8):e9982.
- 166Madrigal TPR, Panlilio MTT, Burog AILD, Danguilan RA, Chavez JR. Incidence of acute pancreatitis among patients with leptospirosis requiring extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO): a descriptive study. BMJ Open Gastroenterol. 2023; 10(1):e001094.
- 167Sternby H, Bolado F, Canaval-Zuleta HJ, et al. Determinants of severity in acute pancreatitis: a nation-wide multicenter prospective cohort study. Ann Surg. 2019; 270(2): 348-355.
- 168de-Madaria E, Buxbaum JL, Maisonneuve P, et al. Aggressive or moderate fluid resuscitation in acute pancreatitis. N Engl J Med. 2022; 387(11): 989-1000.
- 169Xu D, Xie R, Xu Z, et al. mTOR-Myc axis drives acinar-to-dendritic cell transition and the CD4+ T cell immune response in acute pancreatitis. Cell Death Dis. 2020; 11(6): 416.
- 170Farooq U, Abbasi AF, Tarar ZI, Chaudhary AJ, Kamal F. Understanding the role of frailty in local and systemic complications and healthcare resource utilization in acute pancreatitis: findings from a national cohort. Pancreatology. 2024; 24(1): 6-13.
- 171Shields CJ, Winter DC, Redmond HP. Lung injury in acute pancreatitis: mechanisms, prevention, and therapy. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2002; 8(2): 158-163.
- 172Chen J, Zhu X, Wang Z, et al. Inhibition of aquaporin-9 ameliorates severe acute pancreatitis and associated lung injury by NLRP3 and Nrf2/HO-1 pathways. Int Immunopharmacol. 2024; 137:112450.
- 173Zhu X, Duan F, Zhang Y, et al. Acadesine alleviates acute pancreatitis-related lung injury by mediating the barrier protective function of pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells. Int Immunopharmacol. 2022; 111:109165.
- 174Bakker OJ, van Brunschot S, van Santvoort HC, et al. Early versus on-demand nasoenteric tube feeding in acute pancreatitis. N Engl J Med. 2014; 371(21): 1983-1993.
- 175Gad MM, Simons-Linares CR. Is aggressive intravenous fluid resuscitation beneficial in acute pancreatitis? A meta-analysis of randomized control trials and cohort studies. World J Gastroenterol. 2020; 26(10): 1098-1106.
- 176Xie R, Wang J, Yao Y, et al. Fluid resuscitation via the rectum ameliorates hemodynamic disorders through adjusting aquaporin expression in an experimental severe acute pancreatitis model. Exp Ther Med. 2019; 17(1): 437-443.
- 177Kamel MY, Attia JZ, Ahmed SM, Saeed ZH, Welson NN, Abdelzaher WY. Protective effect of rivastigmine against lung injury in acute pancreatitis model in rats via Hsp 70/IL6/NF-κB signaling cascade. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol. 2023; 37:03946320231222804.
- 178Volbeda M, Wetterslev J, Gluud C, Zijlstra JG, van der Horst ICC, Keus F. Glucocorticosteroids for sepsis: systematic review with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. Intensiv Care Med. 2015; 41(7): 1220-1234.
- 179Annane D, Pastores SM, Rochwerg B, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency (CIRCI) in critically ill patients (part I). Crit Care Med. 2017; 45(12): 2078-2088.
- 180Meduri GU, Annane D, Confalonieri M, et al. Pharmacological principles guiding prolonged glucocorticoid treatment in ARDS. Intensiv Care Med. 2020; 46(12): 2284-2296.
- 181Jaber S, Garnier M, Asehnoune K, et al. Guidelines for the management of patients with severe acute pancreatitis, 2021. Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med. 2022; 41(3):101060.
- 182Hu X, Han Z, Zhou R, et al. Altered gut microbiota in the early stage of acute pancreatitis were related to the occurrence of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2023; 13:1127369.
- 183Horváth IL, Bunduc S, Hankó B, et al. No evidence for the benefit of PPIs in the treatment of acute pancreatitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2023; 13(1): 2791.
- 184Guo D, Dai W, Shen J, et al. Assessment of prophylactic carbapenem antibiotics administration for severe acute pancreatitis: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Digestion. 2022; 103(3): 183-191.
- 185Li YL, Zhang DD, Xiong YY, et al. Development and external validation of models to predict acute respiratory distress syndrome related to severe acute pancreatitis. World J Gastroenterol. 2022; 28(19): 2123-2136.
- 186Lin F, Lu R, Han D, Fan Y, Zhang Y, Pan P. A prediction model for acute respiratory distress syndrome among patients with severe acute pancreatitis: a retrospective analysis. Ther Adv Respir Dis. 2022; 16:17534666221122592.
- 187Liberio BM, Seedorf G, Soranno DE, et al. Acute kidney injury decreases pulmonary vascular growth and alveolarization in neonatal rat pups. Pediatr Res. 2023; 94(4): 1308-1316.
- 188Singbartl K, Bishop JV, Wen X, et al. Differential effects of kidney–lung cross-talk during acute kidney injury and bacterial pneumonia. Kidney Int. 2011; 80(6): 633-644.
- 189Yang D, Kang J, Li Y, et al. Development of a predictive nomogram for acute respiratory distress syndrome in patients with acute pancreatitis complicated with acute kidney injury. Ren Fail. 2023; 45(2):2251591.
- 190Jaan A, Sarfraz Z, Farooq U, Malik S, ur Rahman A, Okolo P. Incidence, implications and predictors of abdominal compartment syndrome in acute pancreatitis: a nationwide analysis. Pancreatology. 2024; 24(3): 370-377.
- 191Song LJ, Xiao B. Medical imaging for pancreatic diseases: prediction of severe acute pancreatitis complicated with acute respiratory distress syndrome. World J Gastroenterol. 2022; 28(44): 6206-6212.
- 192Gu J, Xie R, Zhao Y, et al. A machine learning-based approach to predicting the malignant and metastasis of thyroid cancer. Front Oncol. 2022; 12:938292.
- 193Xie RL, Wang Y, Zhao YN, et al. Lung nodule pre-diagnosis and insertion path planning for chest CT images. BMC Méd Imaging. 2023; 23(1): 22.
- 194Zhang M, Pang M. Early prediction of acute respiratory distress syndrome complicated by acute pancreatitis based on four machine learning models. Clinics. 2023; 78:100215.
- 195Zhang W, Chang Y, Ding Y, Zhu Y, Zhao Y, Shi R. To establish an early prediction model for acute respiratory distress syndrome in severe acute pancreatitis using machine learning algorithm. J Clin Med. 2023; 12(5): 1718.
- 196Liu VX, Fielding-Singh V, Greene JD, et al. The timing of early antibiotics and hospital mortality in sepsis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017; 196(7): 856-863.
- 197Giza DE, Fuentes-Mattei E, Bullock MD, et al. Cellular and viral microRNAs in sepsis: mechanisms of action and clinical applications. Cell Death Differ. 2016; 23(12): 1906-1918.
- 198Hensley MK, Bauer ME, Admon LK, Prescott HC. Incidence of maternal sepsis and sepsis-related maternal deaths in the United States. JAMA. 2019; 322(9): 890-892.
- 199Rudd KE, Johnson SC, Agesa KM, et al. Global, regional, and national sepsis incidence and mortality, 1990–2017: analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet. 2020; 395(10219): 200-211.
- 200Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, et al. The third international consensus definitions for sepsis and septic shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016; 315(8): 801-810.
- 201Shi Y, Wang L, Yu S, Ma X, Li X. Risk factors for acute respiratory distress syndrome in sepsis patients: a retrospective study from a tertiary hospital in China. BMC Pulm Med. 2022; 22(1): 238.
- 202Cochi SE, Kempker JA, Annangi S, Kramer MR, Martin GS. Mortality trends of acute respiratory distress syndrome in the United States from 1999 to 2013. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2016; 13(10): 1742-1751.
- 203Xu C, Zheng L, Jiang Y, Jin L. A prediction model for predicting the risk of acute respiratory distress syndrome in sepsis patients: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Pulm Med. 2023; 23(1): 78.
- 204Mayow AH, Ahmad F, Afzal MS, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of independent predictors for acute respiratory distress syndrome in patients presenting with sepsis. Cureus. 2023; 15(4):e37055.
- 205Ling J, Yu S, Xiong F, Xu T, Li S. Melatonin attenuates sepsis-induced acute lung injury via inhibiting excessive mitophagy. Drug Des Dev Ther. 2023; 17: 2775-2786.
- 206Shimizu J, Murao A, Nofi C, Wang P, Aziz M. Extracellular CIRP promotes GPX4-mediated ferroptosis in sepsis. Front Immunol. 2022; 13:903859.
- 207Li J, Lu K, Sun F, et al. Panaxydol attenuates ferroptosis against LPS-induced acute lung injury in mice by Keap1-Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. J Transl Med. 2021; 19(1): 96.
- 208Kim MY, Jeong B, Lee GS, et al. Panaxydol extracted from Panax ginseng inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activation to ameliorate NASH-induced liver injury. Int Immunopharmacol. 2024; 128:111565.
- 209Kim JY, Yu SJ, Oh HJ, Lee JY, Kim Y, Sohn J. Panaxydol induces apoptosis through an increased intracellular calcium level, activation of JNK and p38 MAPK and NADPH oxidase-dependent generation of reactive oxygen species. Apoptosis. 2011; 16(4): 347-358.
- 210Pappalardo F, Montisci A. Adjunctive therapies during veno-venous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Thorac Dis. 2017; 10(5): S683-S691.
- 211Battaglini D, Fazzini B, Silva PL, et al. Challenges in ARDS definition, management, and identification of effective personalized therapies. J Clin Med. 2023; 12(4): 1381.
- 212Combes A, Price S, Levy B. What's new in VA-ECMO for acute myocardial infarction-related cardiogenic shock. Intensiv Care Med. 2024; 50(4): 590-592.
- 213Schmidt M, Hajage D, Lebreton G, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe acute respiratory distress syndrome associated with COVID-19: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Respir Med. 2020; 8(11): 1121-1131.
- 214Diaz RA, Graf J, Zambrano JM, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for COVID-19–associated severe acute respiratory distress syndrome in Chile: a nationwide incidence and cohort study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2021; 204(1): 34-43.
- 215Barbaro RP, MacLaren G, Boonstra PS, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support in COVID-19: an international cohort study of the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization registry. Lancet. 2020; 396(10257): 1071-1078.
- 216Karagiannidis C, Slutsky AS, Bein T, Windisch W, Weber-Carstens S, Brodie D. Complete countrywide mortality in COVID patients receiving ECMO in Germany throughout the first three waves of the pandemic. Crit Care. 2021; 25(1): 413.
- 217Giraud R, Banfi C, Assouline B, Charrière AD, Cecconi M, Bendjelid K. The use of extracorporeal CO2 removal in acute respiratory failure. Ann Intensiv Care. 2021; 11(1): 43.
- 218Grotberg JC, Reynolds D, Kraft BD. Management of severe acute respiratory distress syndrome: a primer. Crit Care. 2023; 27(1): 289.
- 219Boesing C, Rocco PRM, Luecke T, Krebs J. Positive end-expiratory pressure management in patients with severe ARDS: implications of prone positioning and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Crit Care. 2024; 28(1): 277.
- 220Supady A, Combes A, Barbaro RP, et al. Respiratory indications for ECMO: focus on COVID-19. Intensiv Care Med. 2022; 48(10): 1326-1337.
- 221Zhang H, Huang C, Gu X, et al. 3-year outcomes of discharged survivors of COVID-19 following the SARS-CoV-2 omicron (B.1.1.529) wave in 2022 in China: a longitudinal cohort study. Lancet Respir Med. 2024; 12(1): 55-66.
- 222Huang L, Yao Q, Gu X, et al. 1-year outcomes in hospital survivors with COVID-19: a longitudinal cohort study. Lancet. 2021; 398(10302): 747-758.
