The results of two studies show that the adoption of a promotion (vs. prevention) focus causes group-members to become more willing to pursue individual success at the expense of their group when group and individual interests are misaligned.

Sometimes female leaders in male-dominated fields undermine the advancement of other women. Compared with strongly gender identified female leaders, those who are weakly gender identified hinder the advancement of other women in male-dominated domains by giving preferential treatment to men.