Chapter 7
Microstructure of Cheese Products
Bhavbhuti M. Mehta,
Bhavbhuti M. Mehta
Dairy Chemistry Department, SMC College of Dairy Science, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat, India
Search for more papers by this authorBhavbhuti M. Mehta,
Bhavbhuti M. Mehta
Dairy Chemistry Department, SMC College of Dairy Science, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat, India
Search for more papers by this authorBook Editor(s):Mamdouh Mahmoud Abdel-Rahman El-Bakry,
Antoni Sanchez,
Bhavbhuti M. Mehta,
Mamdouh Mahmoud Abdel-Rahman El-Bakry
Universitat Autònoma of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
Search for more papers by this authorAntoni Sanchez
Universitat Autònoma of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
Search for more papers by this authorBhavbhuti M. Mehta
Anand Agricultural University, Gujarat, India
Search for more papers by this authorSummary
Cheese is a complex soft matter that is composed of a protein matrix in which fat, water, minerals and bacterial colonies and their metabolites are entrapped. The arrangement of these components on a micro scale is known as the microstructure of cheese. The microstructure of cheese has a major influence on its textural and functional properties. The microstructure evolves throughout the cheese processing steps. In this chapter, various factors like addition of calcium chloride, rennet/acid coagulations, coagulation temperature, syneresis, salting, ripening, homogenization, high pressure treatments and others that affect the microstructure of cheeses are discussed in detail. The microstructures of various components like protein, fat and calcium, in the cheese matrix are covered. The protein microstructure in cheese mainly develops from casein micelles. The fat globules disrupt the structure by binding the casein matrix. The various organizations of lipids in cheese matrix are covered. Calcium is considered as one of the major compositional variables that affect the microstructure of cheese. The bacterial colonies which are randomly distributed and static within the cheese matrix are highlighted. Every cheese variety has different characteristic structural features and microstructures of selected varieties of cheeses are also described. The microstructures of cheeses are studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and light microscopy. Although these are considered as older techniques, these are still used to study microstructure of various cheese products. The confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) is nowadays widely used. The CLSM technique helps in three-dimensional visualization of components as well as showing live and dead bacteria of the various cheese products. The uses of CLSM in studying the microstructure of cheeses are covered in the present chapter. The complex matrix of cheese affects the entire digestion process, and this is also briefly highlighted in this chapter.
References
- Abd El-Salam, B.A. (2015). Effect of milk fat replacement with vegetable oil and/or whey protein concentrate on microstructure, texture and sensory characteristics of fresh soft cheese. International Journal of Dairy Science, 10(3): 117–125.
- Aguilera, J.M. and Stanley, D.W. (1999). Microstructural Principles of Food Processing and Engineering. Springer, US.
- Anderson, D.L. and Mistry, V.V. (1994). Reduced fat Cheddar cheese from condensed milk. 2. Microstructure. Journal of Dairy Science, 77: 7–15.
-
Ayala-Bribiesca, E., Lussier, M., Chabot, D., Turgeon, S.L. and Britten, M. (2016). Effect of calcium enrichment of Cheddar cheese on its structure, in vitro digestion and lipid bioaccessibility. International Dairy Journal, 53: 1–9.
10.1016/j.idairyj.2015.09.002 Google Scholar
- Ayyash, M.M., Sherkat, F., Francis, P., Williams, R.P. and Shah, N.P. (2011). The effect of sodium chloride substitution with potassium chloride on texture profile and microstructure of Halloumi cheese. Journal of Dairy Science, 94: 37–42.
- Ayyash, M.M., Sherkat, F. and Shah, N.P. (2013). Effect of partial NaCl substitution with KCl on the texture profile, microstructure, and sensory properties of low-moisture Mozzarella cheese. Journal of Dairy Research, 80: 7–13.
- Banks, J.M., Brechany, E.Y. and Christie, W.W. (1989). The production of low fat Cheddar-type cheese. Journal of the Society of Dairy Technology, 42: 6–9.
- Brooker, B.E. (1987). The crystallization of calcium phosphate at the surface of mold-ripened cheeses. Food Microstructure, 6: 25–33.
- Brooker, B.E., Hobbs, D.G. and Turvey, A. (1975). Observations on microscopic crystalline inclusions in Cheddar cheese. Journal of Dairy Research, 42: 341–348.
-
Brown, K.M., McManus, W.R. and McMahon, D.J. (2012). Starch addition in renneted milk gels: Partitioning between curd and whey and effect on curd syneresis and gel microstructure. Journal of Dairy Science, 95: 6871–6881.
10.3168/jds.2011-5191 Google Scholar
-
Burdikova, Z., Svindrych, Z., Hickey, C., Wilkinson, M.G., Auty M. A.E., Samek, O., Bernatova, S., Krzyzanek, V., Periasamy, A. and Sheehan, J.J. (2015). Application of advanced light microscopic techniques to gain deeper insights into cheese matrix physico-chemistry. Dairy Science and Technology, 95: 687–700.
10.1007/s13594-015-0253-2 Google Scholar
- Capellas, M., Mor-Mur, M., Sendra, E. and Guamis, B. (2001). Effect of high-pressure processing on physico-chemical characteristics of fresh goats' milk cheese (Mato). International Dairy Journal, 11: 165–173.
- Capellas, M., Mor-Mur, M., Trujillo, A.J., Sendra, E. and Guamis, B. (1997). Microstructure of High Pressure Treated Cheese Studied by Confocal Scanning Light Microscopy. In: High Pressure Research in the Biosciences and Biotechnology. K. Heremans (ed.) Leuven University Press, Leuven, pp. 391–394,
- Caric, M., Gantar, M. and Kalab, M. (1985). Effects of emulsifying agents on the microstructure and other characteristics of process cheese: a review. Food Microstructure, 4: 297–312.
-
Chapeau, A.L., Silva, J.V.C, Schuck, P., Thierry, A. and Floury, J. (2016). The influence of cheese composition and microstructure on the diffusion of macromolecules: A study using Fluorescence Recovery After Photo bleaching (FRAP). Food Chemistry, 192: 660–667.
10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.07.053 Google Scholar
- Chojnowski, W., Fornal, J., Dec, B. and Blaszczak, W. (2006). Effect of some technological parameters during drying of ripening cheese on its physico-chemical properties and microstructure. Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences, 15: 47–50.
- Cunha, C.R., Dias, A.I. and Viotto, W.H. (2010). Microstructure, texture, colour and sensory evaluation of a spreadable processed cheese analog made with vegetable fat. Food Research International, 43: 723–729.
- Dunshea, F.R., Ostrowska, E., Ferrari, J.M. and Gill, H.S. (2007). Dairy proteins and the regulation of satiety and obesity. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 47(9): 1051–1058.
- Eino, M.F., Biggs, D.A., Irvine, D.M. and Stanley, D.W. (1976a). Microstructure of Cheddar cheese: sample preparation and scanning electron microscopy. Journal of Dairy Research, 43: 109–111.
- Eino, M.F., Biggs, D.A., Irvine, D.M. and Stanley, D.W. (1976b). Comparison of microstructures of Cheddar cheese curd manufactured with calf rennet, bovine pepsin, and porcine pepsin. Journal of Dairy Research, 43: 113–115.
- El-Bakry, M. and Sheehan, J. (2014). Analyzing cheese microstructure: a review of recent developments. Journal of Food Engineering, 125: 84–96.
- Esteves, C.L.C., Lucey, J.A., Hyslop, D.B. and Pires, E.M.V. (2003). Effect of gelation temperature on the properties of skim milk gels made from plant coagulants and chymosin. International Dairy Journal, 13: 877.
- Euston, S.R., Piska, I., Wium, H. and Qvist, K.B. (2002). Controlling the structure and rheological properties of model cheese systems. Australian Journal of Dairy Technology, 57: 145–152.
- Everett, D.W. and Auty, M.A.E. (2008). Cheese structure and current methods of analysis. International Dairy Journal, 18: 759–773.
-
Everett, D.W. (2007). Microstructure of natural cheeses. In: Structure of Dairy Products. A. Tamime (ed.) Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, pp. 170–209.
10.1002/9780470995921.ch7 Google Scholar
- Everett, D.W. and Jameson, G.W. (1993). Physico-chemical aspects of Cheddar cheese made from ultrafiltered milk. Australian Journal of Dairy Technology, 48: 20–29.
- Fang, X., Rioux, L-E., Labrie, S. and Turgeon, S.L. (2016). Commercial cheeses with different texture have different disintegration and protein/peptide release rates during simulated in vitro digestion. International Dairy Journal 56: 169–178.
-
Floury, J., Madec, M.-N., Waharte, F., Jeanson, S. and Lortal, S. (2012). First assessment of diffusion coefficients in model cheese by fluorescence recovery after photo bleaching (FRAP). Food Chemistry, 133: 551–556.
10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.01.030 Google Scholar
-
Fox, P.F., Guinee, T.P., Cogan, T.M. and McSweeney, P.L.H. (2017). Fundamentals of Cheese Science, 2nd edn.
Springer, New York, pp. 475–532.
10.1007/978-1-4899-7681-9_14 Google Scholar
- Fox, P.F., Guinee, T.P., Cogan, T.M. and McSweeney, P.L.H. (2000). Fundamentals of Cheese Science. Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg, MD.
-
Fox, P.F., Guinee, T.P., Cogan T.M. and McSweeney P.L.H. (2017). Fresh cheese products: principals of manufacture and overview of different varieties. In: Fundamentals of Cheese Science, 2nd edn. Fox, P.F., Guinee, T.P., Cogan T.M. and McSweeney, P.L.H (Eds). Springer New York, pp. 543–588.
10.1007/978-1-4899-7681-9_16 Google Scholar
- Gallier, S., Gragson, D., Jiménez-Flores, R. and Everett, D. (2010). Using confocal laser scanning microscopy to probe the milk fat globule membrane and associated proteins. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry, 58: 4250–4257.
- Geng, X.L., van den Berg, F.W.J., Bager, A.N. and Ipsen, R. (2011). Dynamic visualization and microstructure of syneresis of cheese curd during mechanical treatment. International Dairy Journal, 21: 711–717.
- Graiver, N.G., Zaritzky, N.E. and Califano, A.N. (2004). Viscoelastic behavior of refrigerated and frozen low-moisture Mozzarella cheese. Journal of Food Science, 69: 123–128.
- Green, M.L. (1985). Effect of milk pretreatment and making conditions on the properties of Cheddar cheese from milk concentrated by ultrafiltration. Journal of Dairy Research, 52: 555–564.
- Green, M.L. (1987). Effect of manipulation of milk composition and curd-forming conditions on the formation, structure and properties of milk curd. Journal of Dairy Research, 54: 303–313.
- Green, M.L., Langley, K.R., Marshall, R.J., Brooker, B.E., Willis, A. and Vincent, J.F.V. (1986). Mechanical properties of cheese, cheese analogs and protein gels in relation to composition and microstructure. Food Microstructure, 5: 169–180.
- Green, M.L., Marshall, R.J. and Glover, F.A. (1983). Influence of homogenization of concentrated milks on the structure and properties of rennet curds. Journal of Dairy Research, 50: 341–348.
- Guinee, T.P., Auty, M.A.E., Mullins, C., Corcoran, M.O. and Mulholland, E.O. (2000). Preliminary observations on effects of fat content and degree of fat emulsification on the structure-functional relationship of Cheddar-type cheese. Journal of Texture Studies, 31: 645–663.
-
Guinee, T.P., Pudja, P.D. and Farkye, N.Y. (1993). Fresh acid-curd cheese varieties. In: Cheese: Chemistry, Physics and Microbiology. P.F. Fox (Ed.) Chapman and Hall, London, Chapter 13, pp. 363–419.
10.1007/978-1-4615-2648-3_13 Google Scholar
- Gunasekaran, S. and Ak, M.M. (2003). Cheese texture. In: Cheese Rheology and Texture. S. Gunasekaran and M.M. Ak (Eds.) CRC Press Boca Raton, FL, pp. 299–329.
- Guo, M.R., Gilmore, J.A. and Kindstedt, P.S. (1997). Effect of sodium chloride on the serum phase of Mozzarella cheese. Journal of Dairy Science, 80: 3092–3098.
- Hakim, L., Thohari, P.I., Evanuarini, H. and Manab, A. (2016). Physical and chemical properties of Mozzarella cheese analog microwavable. International Journal of ChemTech Research, 9(7): 171–181.
- Hassan, A.N., Frank, J.F. and Corredig, M. (2002). Microstructure of Feta Cheese made using different cultures as determined by confocal scanning laser microscopy. Journal of Food Science, 67(7): 2750–2753.
- Heertje, I., Boskamp, M.J., van Kleef, F. and Gortemaker, F.H. (1981). The microstructure of processed cheese. Netherlands Milk and Dairy Journal, 35: 177–179.
- Heertje, I., Visser, J. and Smits, P. (1985). Structure formation in acid milk gels. Food Microstructure, 4: 267–278.
- Hickey, C.D., Sheehan, J.J., Wilkinson, M.G. and Auty, M.A.E. (2015). Growth and location of bacterial colonies within dairy foods using microscopy techniques: a review. Frontiers in Microbiology, 6: 99.
- Hofi, M.A., Hofi, A.A., El-Kanany, Y.M. and El-Beialy, A.R. (2001). Microstructure of Domiati cheese manufactured by ultrafiltration. In: Proceedings 8th Egyptian Conference of Dairy Science and Technology, pp. 269–282.
- Holsinger, Y.H., Smith, P.W. and Tunick, M.H. (1995). Overview: cheese chemistry and rheology. In: Chemistry of Structure-Function Relationships in Cheese. E.L. Malin and M.H. Tunick (Eds). Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, New York, pp. 1–6.
- Huppertz, T., Fox, P.F., de Kruif, K.G. and Kelly, A.L. (2006). Highpressure-induced changes in bovine milk proteins: a review. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1764: 593–598.
- Impoco, G., Carrato, S., Caccamo, M., Tuminello, L. and Licitra, G. (2007). Quantitative analysis of cheese microstructure using SEM imagery. Communications to SIMAI Congress, ISSN 1827-9015, Vol. 2, pp 1–10. DOI: 10.1685/CSC06096
- Jeanson, S., Chadoeuf, J., Madec, M.N.S., Floury, A.J., Brocklehurst, T.F. and Lortal, S. (2011). Spatial distribution of bacterial colonies in a model cheese. Applied Environmental Microbiology, 77: 1493–1500.
- Joshi, N.S., Muthukumarappan, K. and Dave, R.I. (2004). Effect of calcium on microstructure and meltability of part skim Mozzarella cheese. Journal of Dairy Science, 87: 1975–1985.
- Joshi, N.S., Muthukumarappan, K. and Dave, R.I. (2003). Understanding the role of calcium in functionality of part skim Mozzarella cheese. Journal of Dairy Science, 86: 1918–1926.
- Joshi, N.S., Muthukumarappan, K. and Dave, R.I. (2003). Effect of calcium on physico-chemical properties of fat-free Mozzarella cheese. Journal of Food Science, 68: 2289–2294.
- Kalab, M. (1977). Electron microscopy in dairy research. MSC-SMC Bulletin, pp. 4–10. (www.researchgate.net/publication/276205007).
- Kalab, M. (1977). Milk gel structure. VI. Cheese texture and microstructure. Milchwissenschaft 32: 449–458.
- Kalab, M., Allan-Wojtas, P. and Miller, S.S. (1995). Microscopy and other imaging technique in food structure analysis. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 6: 177–186.
- Kalab, M. (1979). Scanning electron microscopy of dairy products: an overview. Scanning Electron Microscopy, III: 261–272.
- Kalab, M. (1985). Microstructure of dairy foods. 2. Milk products based on fat. Journal of Dairy Science, 68: 3234–3248.
- Kapoor, R. and Metzger, L.E. (2008). Process Cheese: Scientific and Technological Aspects – A Review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 7: 194–214.
- Kheadr, E.E., Vachon, J.F., Paquin, P. and Fliss, I. (2002). Effect of dynamic high pressure on microbiological, rheological and microstructural quality of Cheddar cheese. International Dairy Journal, 12: 435–446.
- Kiely, L.J., Kindstedt, P.S., Hendricks, G.M., Levis, J.E., Yun, J.J. and Barbano, D.M. (1993). Age related changes in the microstructure of Mozzarella cheese. Food Structure, 12: 13–20.
- Kimber, A.M., Brooker B.E., Hobbs, D.G. and Prentice, J.H. (1974). Journal of Dairy Research, 41: 389–396.
- Kindstedt, P.S. and Guo, M.R. (1998). A physico-chemical approach to the structure and function of Mozzarella cheese. Australian Journal of Dairy Technology, 53: 70–73.
- Kindstedt, P.S., Zielinski, A., Almena-Aliste, M. and Ge, C. (2001). A post-manufacture method to evaluate the effect of pH on Mozzarella cheese characteristics. Australian Journal of Dairy Technology, 56: 202–207.
- Koca, N., Erbay, Z. and Kaymak-Ertekin, F. (2015). Effects of spray-drying conditions on the chemical, physical, and sensory properties of cheese powder. Journal of Dairy Science, 98: 2934–2943.
- Kuo, C.J. and Harper, W.J. (2003). Effect of hydration time of milk protein concentrate on cast Feta cheese texture. Milchwissenschaft, 58: 283–286.
-
Kuo, M.I. and Gunasekaran, S. (2009). Effect of freezing and frozen storage on microstructure of Mozzarella and pizza cheeses. LWT – Food Science and Technology
42: 9–16.
10.1016/j.lwt.2008.07.003 Google Scholar
- Kuo, M.I., Anderson, M.E. and Gunasekaran, S. (2003). Determining effects of freezing on pasta filata and non-pasta filata Mozzarella cheeses by nuclear magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Dairy Science, 86: 2525–2536.
- Laloy, E., Vuillemard, J.C., El Soda, M. and Simard, R.E. (1996). Influence of the fat content of Cheddar cheese on retention and localization of starters. International Dairy Journal, 6: 729–740.
-
Lamothe, S., Corbeil, M.-M., Turgeon, S. L. and Britten, M. (2012). Influence of cheese matrix on lipid digestion in a simulated gastro-intestinal environment. Food and Function, 3: 724–731.
10.1039/c2fo10256k Google Scholar
- Lawrence, R.C., Creamer, L.K. and Gilles, J. (1987). Texture development during cheese ripening. Journal of Dairy Science, 70: 1748–1760.
- Lawrence, R.C., Gilles, J., Creamer, L.K., et al. (2004). Cheddar cheese and related dry-salted cheese varieties, 3rd edn. Elsevier Academic Press, London.
- Lobato-Calleros, C., Reyes-Hernández, J., Beristain, C.I., Hornelas-Uribe, Y., Sánchez-García, J.E. and Vernon-Carter, E.J. (2007). Microstructure and texture of white fresh cheese made with canola oil and whey protein concentrate in partial or total replacement of milk fat. Food Research International, 40: 529–537.
- Lobato-Calleros, C., Velázquez-Varela, J., Sánchez-García, J. and Vernon-Carter, E.J. (2003). Dynamic rheology of Mexican manchego cheeselike products containing canola oil and emulsifier blends. Food Research International, 36: 81–90.
- Lobato-Calleros, C., Vernon-Carter, E.J., Sánchez-García, J. and García-Galindo, H.S. (1999). Textural characteristics of cheese analogs incorporating fat replacers. Journal of Texture Studies, 30: 533–548.
- Lobato-Calleros, C., Vernon-Carter, E.J. and Hornelas-Uribe, Y. (1998). Microstructure and texture of cheese analogs containing different types of fat. Journal of Texture Studies, 29: 569–586.
- Lopez, C. and Briard-Bion, V. (2007). The composition, supramolecular organization and thermal properties of milk fat: a new challenge for the quality of food products. Lait 87: 317–336.
- Lopez, C., Camier, B. and Gassi, J.-Y. (2007). Development of the milk fat microstructure during the manufacture and ripening of Emmental cheese observed by confocal laser scanning microscopy. International Dairy Journal, 17: 235–247.
- Lopez C, Maillard MB, Briard-Bion V, Camier B, and Hannon J.A. (2006). Lipolysis during ripening of Emmental cheese considering organization of fat and preferential localization of bacteria. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry, 54: 5855–5867.
- Lopez, C., Cauty, C. and Guyomarc'h, F. (2015). Organization of lipids in milks, infant milk formulas and various dairy products: role of technological processes and potential impacts-Review. Dairy Science and Technology, 95: 863–893.
- Lopez-Fandino, R. (2006). High pressure-induced changes in milk proteins and possible applications in dairy technology. International Dairy Journal, 16: 1119–1131.
- Lopez-Fandino, R., Carrascosa, A.V. and Olano, A. (1996). The effect of high pressure on whey protein denaturation and cheesemaking properties of raw milk. Journal of Dairy Science, 79: 929–936.
- Lucey, J.A. and Fox, P.F. (2015). Importance of calcium and phosphate in cheese manufacture: a review. Journal of Dairy Science, 76: 1714–1724.
- Lucey, J.A. and Fox, P.F. (1993). Importance of calcium and phosphate in cheese manufacture: A review. Journal of Dairy Science, 76(6): 1714–1724.
- Lucey, J.A. (2007). Microstructural approaches to the study and improvement of cheese and yogurt products. In: Understanding and Controlling the Microstructure of Complex Foods McClements, D.J. (Eds). Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC, USA, pp. 600–621.
- Lucey, J.A., Johnson, M.E. and Horne, D.S. (2003). Invited review: Perspectives on the basis of the rheology and texture properties of cheese. Journal of Dairy Science, 86: 2725–2743.
- Madadlou, A., Khosroshahi, A., Mousavi, S.M. and Djome, Z.E. (2006). Microstructure and rheological properties of Iranian white cheese coagulated at various temperatures. Journal of Dairy Science, 89: 2359–2364.
- Madadlou, A., Khosrowshahi, A., Mousavi, M.E. and Farmani, J. (2007). The influence of brine concentration on chemical composition and texture of Iranian white cheese. Journal of Food Engineering, 81: 330–335.
- Madadlou, A., Khosrwoshahi, A. and Mousavi, M.E. (2005). Rheology, microstructure and functionality of low-fat Iranian White cheese made with different concentrations of rennet. Journal of Dairy Science, 88: 3052–3062.
- Martınez-Rodrıguez, Y., Acosta-Muniz, C., Olivas, G.I., Guerrero-Beltran, J., Rodrigo-Aliaga, D. and Sepulveda, D.R. (2012). High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 11: 399–416.
- Martinovic, A., Moe, K., Romeih, E., Aideh, B., Vogensen, F.K., Ostlie, H. and Skeie, S. (2013). Growth of adjunct Lactobacillus casei in Cheddar cheese differing in milk fat globule membrane components. International Dairy Journal, 31: 70–82.
- McMahon, D.J., Oberg, C.J. and McManus, W. (1993). Functionality of Mozzarella cheese. Australian Journal of Dairy Technology, 48: 99–104.
- Michalski, M.C., Camier, B., Briard, V., Leconte, N., Gassi, J.Y., Goudedranche, H., Michel, F. and Fauquant, J. (2004). The size of native milk fat globules affects physico-chemical and functional properties of Emmental cheese. Lait, 84: 343–358.
- Mounir, S., Halle, D. and Allaf, K. (2011). Characterization of pure cheese snacks and expanded granule powders textured by the instant controlled pressure drop (DIC) process. Dairy Science and Technology, 91: 441–455.
- Mulsow, B.B, Jaros, D. and Rohm, H. (2007). Processed cheese and cheese analogs. In: Structure of Dairy Products. A. Tamime (Ed.) Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, pp. 210–235.
- Needs, E.C., Stenning, R.A., Gill, A.L., Ferragut, V. and Rich, G.T. (2000). High-pressure treatment of milk: effects on casein micelle structure and on enzymic coagulation. Journal of Dairy Science, 67: 31–42.
- O'Mahony, J. A., McSweeney, P.L.H. and Lucey, J.A. (2006). A model system for studying the effects of colloidal calcium phosphate concentration on the rheological properties of Cheddar cheese. Journal of Dairy Science, 89: 892–904.
- O'Reilly, C.E., Murphy, P.M., Kelly, A.L., Guinee, T.P., Auty, M.A.E. and Beresford, T.P. (2002). The effect of high pressure treatment on the functional and rheological properties of Mozzarella cheese. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technology, 13: 3–9.
- O'Reilly, C.E. Kelly, A.L. Murphy, P.M. and Beresford, T.P. (2001). High pressure treatment: applications in cheese manufacture and ripening-Review. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 12: 51–59.
- O'Reilly, C.E., O'Connor, P.M., Murphy, P.M., Kelly, A.L. and Beresford, T.P. (2000). The effect of exposure to pressure of 50 MPa on Cheddar cheese ripening. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technology, 1: 109–117.
- Oberg, C.J., McManus, W.R. and McMahon, D.J. (1993). Microstructure of Mozzarella cheese during manufacture. Food Structure, 12: 251–258.
- Oberg, C.J., Merrill, R.K., Brown, R.J. and Richardson, G.H. (1992). Effects of freezing, thawing, and shredding on low moisture, part-skim Mozzarella cheese. Journal of Dairy Science, 75: 1161–1166.
- Oberg, E.N., Oberg, C.J., Motawee, M.M., Martini, S. and McMahon, D.J. (2015). Increasing stringiness of low-fat Mozzarella string cheese using polysaccharides. Journal of Dairy Science, 98: 4243–4254.
- Ong, L., Dagastine, R.R., Kentish, S.E. and Gras, S.L. (2011). Microstructure of milk gel and cheese curd observed using cryo scanning electron microscopy and confocal microscopy. LWT – Food Science Technology, 44: 1291–1302.
-
Ong L., Dagastine, R.R., Auty, M.A.E., Kentish, S.E. and Gras, S.L. (2011). Coagulation temperature affects the microstructure and composition of full fat Cheddar cheese. Dairy Science and Technology, 91 (6): 739–758.
10.1007/s13594-011-0033-6 Google Scholar
-
Ong, L.
Lawrence, R.C.
Gilles J., et al. (2017). Cheddar cheese and related dry-salted cheese varieties. In: McSweeney, P.L.H, Fox, P.F, P.D. Cotter and D.W. Everett (Eds.) Cheese: Chemistry, Physics and Microbiology, 4th edn.
Academic Press, Oxford, pp. 829–863.
10.1016/B978-0-12-417012-4.00033-8 Google Scholar
- Ong, L., Dagastine, R.R., Kentish, S.E. and Gras, S.L. (2013). The effect of calcium chloride addition on the microstructure and composition of Cheddar cheese. International Dairy Journal, 33: 135–141.
- Ong, L., Dagastine, R.R., Kentish, S.E. and Gras, S.L. (2013). Microstructure and composition of full fat Cheddar cheese made with ultrafiltered milk retentate. Foods, 2: 310–331.
- Ozer, B.H., Robinson, R.K. and Grandison, A.S. (2003). Textural and microstructural properties of urfa cheese (a white-brined Turkish cheese). International Journal of Dairy Technology, 56: 171–176.
- Paquet, A. and Kalab, M. (1988). Amino acid composition and structure of cheese baked as a pizza ingredient in conventional and microwave ovens. Food Microstructure, 7: 93–103.
- Pastorino, J., Hansen, C.L. and McMahon, D.J. (2003). Effect of sodium citrate on structure-function relationships of Cheddar cheese. Journal of Dairy Science, 86: 3113–3121.
- Pastorino, J., Ricks, N.P., Hansen, C.L. and McMahon, D.J. (2003). Effect of calcium and water injection on structure-function relationships of cheese. Journal of Dairy Science, 86, 105–113.
- Paulson, B.M., McMahon, D.J. and Oberg, C.J. (1998). Influence of sodium chloride on appearance, functionality, and protein arrangements in nonfat Mozzarella cheese. Journal of Dairy Science, 81, 2053–2064.
-
Pereira C.I., Gomes, A.M.P. and Xavier Malcata, F. (2009). Microstructure of cheese: Processing, technological and microbiological considerations. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 20(5): 213–219.
10.1016/j.tifs.2009.02.006 Google Scholar
- Phadungath, C. (2005). Cream cheese products: A review. Songklanakarin Journal of Science and Technology, 27(1): 191–199.
- Pierre, A., Michel, F., Graët, Y.L. and Berrier, J. (1999). Soft goat cheeses at different ripening stages: cheese structure, composition and non solvent water. Lait, 79: 489–501.
- Rashidinejad, A., Birch, E.J. and Everett, D.W. (2016). Effects of (+)-catechin on the composition, phenolic content and antioxidant activity of full-fat cheese during ripening and recovery of (+)-catechin after simulated in vitro digestion. Antioxidants, 5(3): 29.
- Rashidinejad, A., Birch, E.J., Sun-Waterhouse, D. and Everett, D.W. (2013). Effects of catechin on the phenolic content and antioxidant properties of low-fat cheese. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 48: 2448–2455.
- Rogers, N.R., McMahon, D.J., Daubert, C.R., Berry, T.K. and Foegeding, E.A. (2010). Rheological properties and microstructure of Cheddar cheese made with different fat contents. Journal of Dairy Science, 93: 4565–4576.
- Romeih, E., Moe, K. and Skeie, S. (2012). The influence of fat globule membrane material on the microstructure of low-fat Cheddar cheese. International Dairy Journal 26: 66–72.
- Sainani, M.R., Vyas, H.K. and Tong, P.S. (2004). Characterization of particles in cream cheese. Journal of Dairy Science, 87, 2854–2863.
- Saldo, J., Sendra, E. and Guamis, B. (2002). Colour changes during ripening high-pressure-treated hard caprine cheese. High Pressure Research, 22: 659–663.
- Serrano, J., Velazquez, G., Lopetcharat, K., Ramırez, J.A. and Torres, J.A. (2004). Effect of moderate pressure treatments on microstructure, texture, and sensory properties of stirred-curd Cheddar shreds. Journal of Dairy Science, 87: 3172–3182.
- Serrano, J., Velazquez, G., Lopetcharat, K., Ramırez, J.A. and Torres, J.A. (2005). Moderately high hydrostatic pressure processing to reduce production costs of shredded cheese: microstructure, texture and sensory properties of shredded milled curd Cheddar. Journal of Food Science, 70: 286–293.
- Shaw, M. (1984). Cheese substitutes: threat or opportunity? Journal of the Society of Dairy Technology, 37: 27–31.
- Shimp, L.A. (1985). Process cheese principles. Food Technology, 39: 63–64, 66, 68, 70.
- Soodam, K., Ong, L., Powell, I B, Kentish, S.E. and Gras, S.L. (2015). Effect of calcium chloride addition and draining pH on the microstructure and texture of full fat Cheddar cheese during ripening. Food Chemistry, 181: 111–118.
- Soodam, K., Ong, L., Powell, I.B., Kentish, S.E. and Gras, S.L. (2015). Effect of rennet on the composition, proteolysis and microstructure of reduced-fat Cheddar cheese during ripening. Dairy Science and Technology, 95(5): 665–686.
- Torres-Mora, M.A., Soeldner, A., Ting, E.Y., et al. (1996). Early microstructure changes in Cheddar cheese and the effects of high pressure curd processing. In: Book of Abstracts of I.F.T. Annual Meeting, pp. 9, New Orleans, LA, USA.
- Turgeon, S.L. and Rioux, L.-E. (2011). Food matrix impact on macronutrients nutritional properties. Food Hydrocolloids, 25: 1915–1924.
- Upreti, P. and Metzger, L.E. (2006). Influence of calcium and phosphorus, lactose, and salt-to-moisture ratio on Cheddar cheese quality: manufacture and composition. Journal of Dairy Science, 89: 420–428.
- Walstra, P., van Dijk, H.J.M. and Geurts, T.J. (1985). The syneresis of curd. 1. General considerations and literature review. Netherlands Milk and Dairy Journal, 39: 209–246.
- Walstra, P., Wouters, J.T.M. and Geurts, T.J. (2006). Dairy Science and Technology, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 603–608.
- Washam, C.J., Kerr, T.J. and Hurst, V.J. (1982). Microstructure of various chemical compounds crystallized on Cheddar cheese. Journal of Food Protection, 45(7): 594–596.
- Washam, C.J., Kerr, T.J. and Todd, R.L. (1979). Scanning electron microscopy of blue cheese: mold growth during maturation. Journal of Dairy Science, 62: 1384-1389.
- Watkinson, P., Coker, C., Crawford, R., Dodds, C., Johnston, K., McKenna, A. and White, N. (2001). Effect of cheese pH and ripening time on model cheese textural properties and proteolysis. International Dairy Journal, 11: 455–464.
- Wium, H., Pedersen, P.S. and Qvist, K.B. (2003) Effect of coagulation conditions on the microstructure and the large deformation properties of fat-free Feta cheese made from ultrafiltered milk. Food Hydrocolloids, 17: 287–296.
- Yun, J.J., Barbano, D.M., Kindstedt, P.S. and Larose, K.L. (1995). Mozzarella cheese: impact of whey pH at draining on chemical composition, proteolysis, and functional properties. Journal of Dairy Science, 78(1): 1–7.
