Article
Flowing Across with Demonic Hate: Belief in Supernatural Evil and Support for Stricter Immigration Policy
Brandon C. Martinez,
Joshua C. Tom,
Joseph O. Baker,
Corresponding Author
Brandon C. Martinez
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Providence College
Correspondence should be addressed to Brandon C. Martinez, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Providence College, 1 Cunningham Square, Providence, RI 02918. E-mail: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorJoshua C. Tom
Department of Sociology, Seattle Pacific University
Search for more papers by this authorJoseph O. Baker
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, East Tennessee State University
Search for more papers by this authorBrandon C. Martinez,
Joshua C. Tom,
Joseph O. Baker,
Corresponding Author
Brandon C. Martinez
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Providence College
Correspondence should be addressed to Brandon C. Martinez, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Providence College, 1 Cunningham Square, Providence, RI 02918. E-mail: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorJoshua C. Tom
Department of Sociology, Seattle Pacific University
Search for more papers by this authorJoseph O. Baker
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, East Tennessee State University
Search for more papers by this authorAcknowledgments: This research was supported by Providence College's Summer Scholar Program. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the annual meeting for the Society of the Scientific Study of Religion in 2019. The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on an earlier version of this paper.
Statement on Replication: Data used in this article are available to download on the Association of Religion Data Archives website (thearda.com). SAS code for analyses is available upon request to the corresponding author.
Abstract
Prior research has found that different aspects of religion (such as service attendance and fundamentalism) have significant and varying effects on public attitudes about immigration. We identify an important but understudied aspect of how religion connects to immigration attitudes: beliefs about the reality of supernatural evil (e.g., Satan, hell, and demons). Using a national sample of Americans, we find that greater belief in supernatural evil is a strong and consistent predictor of more restrictive views of immigration, even after controlling for other dimensions of religiosity, sociodemographics, and political characteristics. Overall, beliefs about religious evil are the aspect of religion with the strongest connection to views of immigration. Consequently, consideration of religious evil is integral to understanding how religion influences public attitudes about immigration.
Author-Provided Video
Flowing Across with Demonic Hate: Belief in Supernatural Evil and Support for Stricter Immigration Policy
by Martinez et al.
Supporting Information
| Filename | Description |
|---|---|
| jssr12787-sup-0001-appendix.docx22.3 KB | Online Appendix |
Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.
References
- Abrego, Leisy, Mat Coleman, Daniel E. Martínez, Cecilia Menjívar, and Jeremy Slack. 2017. Making immigrants into criminals: Legal processes of criminalization in the post-IIRIRA era. Journal on Migration and Human Security 5(3): 694–715.
10.1177/233150241700500308 Google Scholar
- Bader, Christopher D., Joseph O. Baker, L. Edward Day, and Ann Gordon. 2020. Fear itself: The causes and consequences of fear in America. NYU Press.
- Bader, Christopher D., Joseph O. Baker, and F. Carson Mencken. 2017. Paranormal America. (Second Edition): Ghost encounters, UFO sightings, bigfoot hunts, and other curiosities in religion and culture. NYU Press.
10.2307/j.ctt1gk08qb Google Scholar
- Bail, Chris. 2014. Terrified: How anti-Muslim fringe organizations became mainstream. Princeton University Press.
10.23943/princeton/9780691159423.001.0001 Google Scholar
- Baker, Joseph O. 2008. Who believes in religious evil? An investigation of sociological patterns of belief in Satan, hell, and demons. Review of Religious Research 50(2): 206–20.
- Baker, Joseph O. and Christopher D. Bader. 2022. Xenophobia, partisanship, and support for Donald Trump and the Republican Party. Race and Social Problems 14: 69-83.https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-021-09337-0.
10.1007/s12552?021?09337?0 Google Scholar
- Baker, Joseph O., Christopher D. Bader, and Kittye Hirsch. 2015. Desecration, moral boundaries, and the movement of law: The case of Westboro Baptist Church. Deviant Behavior 36(1): 42–67.
- Baker, Joseph O. and Alexis L. Booth. 2016. Hell to pay: Religion and punitive ideology among the American public. Punishment & Society 18(2): 151–76.
- Baker, Joseph O., David Cañarte, and L. Edward Day. 2018. Race, xenophobia, and punitiveness among the American public. Sociological Quarterly 59(3): 363–83.
- Baker, Joseph O. and Amy E. Edmonds. 2021. Immigration, presidential politics, and partisan polarization among the American public, 1992–2018. Sociological Spectrum 41(4): 287-303. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.2021.1900760.
10.1080/02732173.2021.1900760 Google Scholar
- Baker, Joseph O., Andrea Molle, and Christopher D. Bader. 2020. The flesh and the devil: Belief in religious evil and views of sexual morality. Review of Religious Research 62(1): 133–51.
- Baker, Joseph O., Samuel L. Perry, and Andrew L. Whitehead. 2020. Keep America Christian (and White): Christian nationalism, fear of ethnoracial outsiders, and intention to vote for Donald Trump in the 2020 Presidential Election. Sociology of Religion 81(3): 272–93.
- Baker, Joseph O. and Andrew L. Whitehead. 2020. God's penology: Belief in a masculine God predicts support for harsh criminal punishment and militarism. Punishment & Society 22(2): 135–60.
- Bansak, Kirk, Jens Hainmueller, and Dominik Hangartner. 2016. How economic, humanitarian, and religious concerns shape European attitudes toward asylum seekers. Science 354(6309): 217–22.
- Barriere, Hayley. 2019. Understanding public perceptions of immigrant criminality. UVM Honors College Senior Theses.
- Berger, Peter Ludwig. 1969. The sacred canopy: Elements of a sociological theory of religion. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books.
- Bice, Daniel. 2013. “DOT official likens illegal immigrants to Satan.” Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, August 8. Retrieved April 15, 2022 (https://archive.jsonline.com/watchdog/noquarter/scott-walker-aide-likens-illegal-immigrants-to-satan-then-quickly-fired-b9971968z1-218921241.html/
- Bloom, Pazit Ben-Nun, Gizem Arikan, and Marie Courtemanche. 2015. Religious social identity, religious belief, and anti-immigration sentiment. American Political Science Review 109(2): 203–21.
- Bohman, Andrea and Mikael Hjerm. 2014. How the religious context affects the relationship between religiosity and attitudes towards immigration. Ethnic and Racial Studies 37(6): 937–57.
- Braunstein, Ruth. 2021. The ‘right’ history: Religion, race, and nostalgic stories of Christian America. Religions 12(2): 95.
- Braunstein, Ruth and Malaena Taylor. 2017. Is the Tea Party a ‘religious’ movement? Religiosity in the Tea Party versus the religious right. Sociology of Religion 78(1): 33–59.
- Brown, Hana E. 2013. Race, legality, and the social policy consequences of anti-immigration mobilization. American Sociological Review 78(2): 290–314.
- Campbell, David E., Geoffrey C. Layman, and John C. Green. 2020. Secular surge: A new fault line in American politics. Cambridge University Press.
10.1017/9781108923347 Google Scholar
- Cervantes, Andrea Gomez, Daniel Alvord, and Cecilia Menjívar. 2018. ‘Bad Hombres’: The effects of criminalizing Latino immigrants through law and media in the rural Midwest. Migration Letters 15(2): 182–96.
- Chavez, Leo. 2013. The Latino threat: Constructing immigrants, citizens, and the nation, second edition. Stanford University Press.
10.1515/9780804786188 Google Scholar
- Chavez, Leo R. 2001. Covering immigration: Popular images and the politics of the nation. 1st edition. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
- Cohen, Stanley. 2011. Folk devils and moral panics. London: Routledge.
10.4324/9780203828250 Google Scholar
- Cohen, Stanley. 2011. Whose side were we on? The undeclared politics of moral panic theory. Crime, Media, Culture 7(3): 237–43.
- Daniels, Joseph P. and Marc von der Ruhr. 2010. Trust in others: Does religion matter?Review of Social Economy 68(2): 163–86.
10.1080/00346760902968447 Google Scholar
- Davidov, Eldad and Bart Meuleman. 2012. Explaining attitudes towards immigration policies in European countries: The role of human values. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 38(5): 757–75.
- Davis, Joshua T. 2019. Funding God's policies, defending whiteness: Christian nationalism and whites’ attitudes towards racially-coded government spending. Ethnic and Racial Studies 42(12): 2123–42.
- Davis, Joshua T. and Samuel L. Perry. 2021. White Christian nationalism and relative political tolerance for racists. Social Problems 68(3): 513–34.
- Denvir, Daniel. 2020. All-American nativism: How the Bipartisan war on immigrants explains politics as we know it. Verso Books.
- DeYoung, Mary. 1997. The devil goes to day care: McMartin and the making of a moral panic. Journal of Popular Culture 20(1): 19–25.
- Domke, David and Kevin Coe. 2008. The God strategy: How religion became a political weapon in America. Oxford University Press.
10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195326413.001.0001 Google Scholar
- Dougherty, Kevin D., Byron R. Johnson, and Edward C. Polson. 2007. Recovering the lost: Remeasuring U.S. religious affiliation. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 46(4): 483–99.
- Durkheim, Émile. 1915. The elementary forms of the religious life, a study in religious sociology. New York: G. Allen & Unwin; Macmillan.
- Ellison, Christopher G. and Matt Bradshaw. 2009. Religious beliefs, sociopolitical ideology, and attitudes toward corporal punishment. Journal of Family Issues 30(3): 320–40.
- Ellison, Christopher G., Benjamin Dowd-Arrow, Amy M. Burdette, Pablo E. Gonzalez, Margaret S. Kelley, and Paul Froese. 2021. Peace through superior firepower: Belief in supernatural evil and attitudes toward gun policy in the United States. Social Science Research 99: 102595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2021.102595.
10.1016/j.ssresearch.2021.102595 Google Scholar
- Erikson, Kai T. 2004. Wayward Puritans: A study in the sociology of deviance, classic edition. Revised edition. Boston, MA: Pearson College Division.
- Estepa, Jessica. 2017. CPAC will have a panel on heaven, walls and extreme vetting. USA TODAY Retrieved March 27, 2021 (https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/onpolitics/2017/02/22/cpac-heaven-wall-vetting-panel/98262292/).
- Ferguson, Todd W., Samuel Stroope, Joshua C. Tom, Brita Andercheck, and Brandon C. Martinez. 2017. Social sources of community solidarity in U.S. congregations. Sociological Spectrum 37(4): 223–36.
- Fetzer, Joel S. 1998. Religious minorities and support for immigrant rights in the United States, France, and Germany. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 37(1): 41–49.
- Fetzer, Joel S. 2000. Public attitudes toward immigration in the United States, France, and Germany. Cambridge University Press.
- Flannelly, Kevin J. 2017a. Belief in divine forgiveness, evil, and biblical literalism and mental health. In Religious beliefs, evolutionary psychiatry, and mental health in America. Religion, spirituality and health: A social scientific approach, edited by K. J. Flannelly pp. 243–57. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
10.1007/978-3-319-52488-7_24 Google Scholar
- Flannelly, Kevin J. 2017b. Belief in meaning, other religious beliefs, religious doubt, and mental health. In Religious beliefs, evolutionary psychiatry, and mental health in America: Evolutionary threat assessment systems theory. Religion, spirituality and health: A social scientific approach, edited by K. J. Flannelly, pp. 315–24. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
10.1007/978-3-319-52488-7_30 Google Scholar
- Flores-Yeffal, Nadia Y., Guadalupe Vidales, and Girsea Martinez. 2019. #WakeUpAmerica, #IllegalsAreCriminals: The role of the cyber public sphere in the perpetuation of the Latino cyber-moral panic in the US. Information, Communication & Society 22(3): 402–19.
- Goode, Erich and Nachman Ben-Yehuda. 2010. Moral panics: The social construction of deviance. John Wiley & Sons.
- Goodman, Leo A. and William H. Kruskai. 1954. Measures of association for cross-classification. Journal of the American Statistical Association 49(268): 732–64.
- Guth, James L. 2019. Are white evangelicals populists? The view from the 2016 American national election study. Review of Faith & International Affairs 17(3): 20–35.
- Hayes, Bernadette C. and Lizanne Dowds. 2006. Social contact, cultural marginality or economic self-interest? Attitudes towards immigrants in Northern Ireland. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 32(3): 455–76.
- Hempel, Lynn M. and John P. Bartkowski. 2008. Scripture, sin and salvation: Theological conservatism reconsidered. Social Forces 86(4): 1647–74.
- Hempel, Lynn M., Todd Matthews, and John Bartkowski. 2012. Trust in a ‘fallen world’: The case of protestant theological conservatism. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 51(3): 522–41.
- Hertz, Robert. 1922. Sin and expiation in primitive societies. Oxford: British Centre for Durkheimian Studies, Institute of Social and Cultural Anthropology.
- Irwin, Kyle and Brandon C. Martinez. 2017. The effects of protestant theological conservatism and trust on environmental cooperation. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 56(1): 199–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12312.
- Johnson, Dominic D. P. 2005. God's punishment and public goods. Human Nature 16(4): 410–46.
- Johnson, Dominic D. P. and Oliver Kruger. 2004. The good of wrath: Supernatural punishment and the evolution of cooperation. Political Theology 5(2): 159–76.
10.1558/poth.2004.5.2.159 Google Scholar
- Joosse, Paul. 2018. Expanding moral panic theory to include the agency of charismatic entrepreneurs. British Journal of Criminology 58(4): 993–1012.
- Jung, Jong Hyun. 2020a. Belief in hell and parenting priorities concerning child independence and obedience: Does economic context matter?Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 59(4): 629–45.
- Jung, Jong Hyun. 2020b. Belief in supernatural evil and mental health: Do secure attachment to God and gender matter?Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 59(1): 141–60.
- Knoll, Benjamin R. 2009. ‘And who is my neighbor?’ Religion and immigration policy attitudes. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 48(2): 313–31.
- Kroll, Juli A. 2009. Exile and dis-integration in ‘Memorias Del Subdesarrollo’ and ‘Balseros.’ Hispanic Journal 30(1/2): 81–96.
- Longazel, Jamie. 2013a. Moral panic as racial degradation ceremony: Racial stratification and the local-level backlash against Latino/a immigrants. Punishment & Society 15(1): 96–119.
- Longazel, Jamie. 2013b. Subordinating myth: Latino/a immigration, crime, and exclusion. Sociology Compass 7(2): 87–96.
10.1111/soc4.12018 Google Scholar
- Luhrmann, Tanya M. 2012. When God talks back: Understanding the American Evangelical relationship with God. Vintage Books.
- Mahoney, Annette. 2010.Religion in families, 1999–2009: A relational spirituality framework. Journal of Marriage and Family 72(4): 805–27.
- Margolis, Michele F. 2018. How far does social group influence reach? Identities, elites, and immigration attitudes. Journal of Politics 80(3): 772–85.
- Markowitz, David M. and Paul Slovic. 2021. Why we dehumanize illegal immigrants: A US mixed-methods study. PLoS One 16(10):e0257912.
- Marti, Gerardo. 2020. American blindspot. 1st edition. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
- Martinez, Brandon C. 2013. Is evil good for religion? The link between supernatural evil and religious commitment. Review of Religious Research 55(2): 319–38.
- Martinez, Brandon C. 2018. The integration of racial and ethnic minorities into white congregations. Sociological Inquiry 88(3): 467–93.
- Martinez, Brandon C. and Jeffrey A. Tamburello. 2018. The role of whites in lay leadership within Latino churches. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 57(1): 39–57.
- Martinez, Brandon C., Joshua C. Tom, Todd W. Ferguson, Brita Andercheck, and Samuel Stroope. 2018. Parenting practices and attitudes and the role of belief in supernatural evil: Results from a National U.S. Survey. Journal of Family Issues 39(6): 1616–38.
- McCarthy, Angela F., Laura R. Olson, and James C. Garand. 2019. Religious right, religious left, both, or neither? Understanding religio-political identification. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 58(3): 547–69.
- McCarthy, Angela Farizo, Nicholas T. Davis, James C. Garand, and Laura R. Olson. 2016. Religion and attitudes toward redistributive policies among Americans. Political Research Quarterly 69(1): 121–33.
- McDaniel, Eric Leon, Irfan Nooruddin, and Allyson F. Shortle. 2011. Divine boundaries: How religion shapes citizens’ attitudes toward immigrants. American Politics Research 39(1): 205–33.
- Mestrović, Stjepan G. 1985. Anomia and sin in Durkheim's thought. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 24(2): 119–36.
- Morgan, Stephen L. and Jiwon Lee. 2018. Trump voters and the white working class. Sociological Science 5: 234–45.
- Morone, James A. 2008. Hellfire nation. Yale University Press.
- Muchembled, Robert. 2003. A history of the devil: From the middle ages to the present. Cambridge: Polity Press.
- Mutz, Diana C. 2018. Status threat, not economic hardship, explains the 2016 Presidential Vote. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115(19): E4330–39.
- Nie, Fanhao and Daniel V. A. Olson. 2016. Demonic influence: The negative mental health effects of belief in demons. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 55(3): 498–515.
- Norenzayan, Ara and Azim F. Shariff. 2008. The origin and evolution of religious prosociality. Science 322(5898): 58–62.
- O'Donnell, S. Jonathon. 2020. Passing orders: Demonology and sovereignty in American spiritual warfare. 1st edition. Fordham University Press.
10.5422/fordham/9780823289677.001.0001 Google Scholar
- Olsen, Ted. 2007. Is illegal immigration a Satanic plot? News & Reporting Retrieved June 25, 2020 (https://www.christianitytoday.com/news/2007/april/is-illegal-immigration-satanic-plot.html).
- Ommundsen, Reidar, Kees van der Veer, Knud S. Larsen, and Dag-Erik Eilertsen. 2014. Framing unauthorized immigrants: The effects of labels on evaluations. Psychological Reports 114(2): 461–78.
- Parkin, Robert. 1996. The dark side of humanity: The work of Robert Hertz and its legacy. London: Routledge.
- Paterson, Ian. 2018. Any room at the inn? The impact of religious elite discourse on immigration attitudes in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Politics and International Relations 20(3): 594–612.
- Peek, Lori. 2011. Behind the backlash: Muslim Americans after 9/11. Temple University Press.
- Perry, Samuel L. 2022. American religion in the era of increasing polarization. Annual Review of Sociology https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-031021-114239.
10.1146/annurev?soc?031021?114239 Google Scholar
- Perry, Samuel L., Andrew L. Whitehead, and Joshua B. Grubbs. 2021a. Save the economy, liberty, and yourself: Christian nationalism and Americans’ views on government COVID-19 restrictions. Sociology of Religion 82(4): 426–46.
- Perry, Samuel L., Andrew L. Whitehead, and Joshua B. Grubbs. 2021b. The devil that you know: Christian nationalism and intent to change one's voting behavior for or against Trump in 2020. Politics and Religion, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1017/S175504832100002X.
10.1017/S175504832100002X Google Scholar
- Pocknell, Victoria. 2020. Belief in pure evil as a trait predictor of harsh judgments of perpetrator attributes. Ph.D., University of North Dakota.
- Poole, W. Scott. 2009. Satan in America: The devil we know. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
- Provine, Doris Marie and Roxanne Lynn Doty. 2011. The criminalization of immigrants as a racial project. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 27(3): 261–77.
10.1177/1043986211412559 Google Scholar
- Reny, Tyler T., Loren Collingwood, and Ali A. Valenzuela. 2019. Vote switching in the 2016 election: How racial and immigration attitudes, not economics, explain shifts in white voting. Public Opinion Quarterly 83(1): 91–113.
- Ricœur, Paul. 1967. The symbolism of evil. Beacon Press.
- Russell, Jeffrey Burton. 1987. Satan: The early Christian tradition. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
- Russell, Jeffrey Burton. 1990. Mephistopheles: The devil in the modern world. Cornell University Press.
- Sampaio, Anna. 2015. Terrorizing Latina/o immigrants: Race, gender, and immigration policy post-9/11. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
- Seto, Christopher H. and Iman Said. 2022. Religious perceptions of crime and implications for punitiveness. Punishment & Society 24(1): 46-48. https://doi.org/10.1177/1462474520960038.
- Shariff, Azim F. and Ara Norenzayan. 2007. God is watching you priming God concepts increases prosocial behavior in an anonymous economic game. Psychological Science 18(9): 803–9.
- Shariff, Azim F. and Ara Norenzayan. 2011. Mean Gods make good people: Different views of God predict cheating behavior. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 21(2): 85–96.
- Shariff, Azim F. and Mijke Rhemtulla. 2012. Divergent effects of beliefs in heaven and hell on national crime rates. PLoS One 7(6): e39048.
- Sherkat, Darren E. and Derek Lehman. 2018. Bad Samaritans: Religion and anti-immigrant and anti-Muslim sentiment in the United States*. Social Science Quarterly 99(5): 1791–804.
- Shortle, Allyson F. and Ronald Keith Gaddie. 2015. Religious nationalism and perceptions of Muslims and Islam. Politics and Religion 8(3): 435–57.
- Sides, John, Michael Tesler, and Lynn Vavreck. 2019. Identity crisis: The 2016 Presidential Campaign and the battle for the meaning of America. Princeton University Press.
10.2307/j.ctvktrvp5 Google Scholar
- Silber Mohamed, Heather and Emily M. Farris. 2020. ‘Bad Hombres’? An examination of identities in U.S. media coverage of immigration. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 46(1): 158–76.
- Smith, Tom W. 1997. Factors relating to misanthropy in contemporary American society. Social Science Research 26(2): 170–96.
- Stark, Rodney and William Sims Bainbridge. 1996. A theory of religion. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
- Steensland, Brian, Lynn D. Robinson, W. Bradford Wilcox, Jerry Z. Park, Mark D. Regnerus, and Robert D. Woodberry. 2000. The measure of American religion: Toward improving the state of the art. Social Forces 79(1): 291–318.
- Stewart, Evan, Penny Edgell, and Jack Delehanty. 2018. The politics of religious prejudice and tolerance for cultural others. Sociological Quarterly 59(1): 17–39.
- Storm, Ingrid. 2011. Christian nations? Ethnic Christianity and anti-immigration attitudes in four western European countries. Nordic Journal of Religion and Society 24(1): 75–96.
- Storm, Ingrid. 2018. When does religiosity matter for attitudes to immigration? The impact of economic insecurity and religious norms in Europe. European Societies 20(4): 595–620.
- Stroope, Samuel. 2011. Education and religion: Individual, congregational, and cross-level interaction effects on biblical literalism. Social Science Research 40(6): 1478–93.
- Stroope, Samuel and Joseph O. Baker. 2014. Structural and cultural sources of community in American congregations. Social Science Research 45: 1–17.
- Swatos, William H. 1988. Picketing Satan enfleshed at 7-eleven: A research note. Review of Religious Research 30(1): 73–82.
- Taylor, Mark. 2019. The Trump Prophecies: The astonishing true story of the man who saw tomorrow… and what he says is coming next: Updated and expanded. Crane, MO: Defender Publishing.
- Tosh, Sarah. 2019. Drugs, crime, and aggravated felony deportations: Moral panic theory and the legal construction of the ‘criminal alien.’ Critical Criminology 27(2): 329–45.
- Tsoukala, Anastassia. 2005. Looking at migrants as enemies. In Controlling frontiers, edited by D. Bigo and E. Guild, pp. 161–92. London: Routledge.
- Tucker, Patrick D., Michelle Torres, Betsy Sinclair, and Steven S. Smith. 2019. Pathways to Trump: Republican voters in 2016. Electoral Studies 61:102035.
- Vegter, Abigail and Margaret Kelley. 2020. The protestant ethic and the spirit of gun ownership. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 59(3): 526–40.
- Victor, Jeffrey S. 1993. Satanic panic: The creation of contemporary legend. Chicago, IL: Open Court.
- Victor, Jeffrey S. 1998. Moral panics and the social construction of deviant behavior: A theory and application to the case of ritual child abuse. Sociological Perspectives 41(3): 541–65.
- Webster, Russell J. and Donald A. Saucier. 2015. Demons are everywhere: The effects of belief in pure evil, demonization, and retribution on punishing criminal perpetrators. Personality and Individual Differences 74: 72–77.
- Weise, David R., Thomas Arciszewski, Jean-François Verlhiac, Tom Pyszczynski, and Jeff Greenberg. 2012. Terror management and attitudes toward immigrants. European Psychologist 17(1): 63–72.
- Whitehead, Andrew L. and Samuel L. Perry. 2020. Taking America back for God: Christian nationalism in the United States. Oxford University Press.
10.1093/oso/9780190057886.001.0001 Google Scholar
- Wilcox, Clyde, Sharon Linzey, and Ted G. Jelen. 1991. Reluctant warriors: Premillennialism and politics in the moral majority. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 30(3): 245–58.
- Willenbrink, Hank. 2021. Vessel, messiah, warrior: Donald Trump in Evangelical Christian narratives. Ecumenica 14(2): 221–47.
10.5325/ecumenica.14.2.0221 Google Scholar
- Wilson, Angelia R. and Cynthia Burack. 2012. ‘Where liberty reigns and God is supreme’: The Christian right and the Tea Party Movement. New Political Science 34(2): 172–90.
10.1080/07393148.2012.676395 Google Scholar
- Wilson, Keith M., Jennifer L. Acord, and Ronan S. Bernas. 2006. Intolerance toward others and belief in an active Satan. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 17: 39–48.
- Wilson, Keith M. and Jennifer L. Huff. 2001. Scaling Satan. Journal of Psychology 135(3): 292–300.
- Zatz, Marjorie S. and Hilary Smith. 2012. Immigration, crime, and victimization: Rhetoric and reality. Annual Review of Law and Social Science 8(1): 141–59.
