Preparing nurses to face the pandemic of diabetes mellitus: a literature review
Katarina Hjelm MSc PhD SRNT,
Esther Mufunda MSc SRNT,
Grace Nambozi MSc RNM, SRNT,
Joan Kemp MSc PhD RGN,
Katarina Hjelm MSc PhD SRNT
Senior Lecturer, Department of Community Medicine, University of Lund, Lund; and Department of Health Science and Social Work, University of Växjö, Växjö, Sweden
Search for more papers by this authorEsther Mufunda MSc SRNT
Senior Lecturer, Department of Community Medicine, University of Lund, Lund; and Department of Health Science and Social Work, University of Växjö, Växjö, Sweden
Search for more papers by this authorGrace Nambozi MSc RNM, SRNT
Senior Lecturer, Department of Community Medicine, University of Lund, Lund; and Department of Health Science and Social Work, University of Växjö, Växjö, Sweden
Search for more papers by this authorJoan Kemp MSc PhD RGN
Senior Lecturer, Department of Community Medicine, University of Lund, Lund; and Department of Health Science and Social Work, University of Växjö, Växjö, Sweden
Search for more papers by this authorKatarina Hjelm MSc PhD SRNT,
Esther Mufunda MSc SRNT,
Grace Nambozi MSc RNM, SRNT,
Joan Kemp MSc PhD RGN,
Katarina Hjelm MSc PhD SRNT
Senior Lecturer, Department of Community Medicine, University of Lund, Lund; and Department of Health Science and Social Work, University of Växjö, Växjö, Sweden
Search for more papers by this authorEsther Mufunda MSc SRNT
Senior Lecturer, Department of Community Medicine, University of Lund, Lund; and Department of Health Science and Social Work, University of Växjö, Växjö, Sweden
Search for more papers by this authorGrace Nambozi MSc RNM, SRNT
Senior Lecturer, Department of Community Medicine, University of Lund, Lund; and Department of Health Science and Social Work, University of Växjö, Växjö, Sweden
Search for more papers by this authorJoan Kemp MSc PhD RGN
Senior Lecturer, Department of Community Medicine, University of Lund, Lund; and Department of Health Science and Social Work, University of Växjö, Växjö, Sweden
Search for more papers by this author
Katarina Hjelm,
Department of Health Science and Social Work,
University of Växjö,
S-351 95 Växjö,
Sweden.
E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
hjelm k., mufunda e., nambozi g.&kemp j. (2003) Journal of Advanced Nursing 41(5), 424–434 Preparing nurses to face the pandemic of diabetes mellitus: a literature review
Background. Diabetes constitutes a global public health problem. Today about 135 million people are affected and it is estimated that the number in 2025 will be 300 million.
Aims. By reviewing existing literature the aim is to raise awareness among nurses, nurse educators and nursing students of the global epidemic of diabetes mellitus, its multiple underlying causes, especially social ones, and how to fight it. A further aim is to discuss the implications for future curriculum content in nurse education programmes.
Findings. The main underlying causes of the disease are genetic and environmental factors, such as urbanization and industrialization, as well as increased longevity and changes in lifestyle from a traditional healthy and active life to a modern, sedentary, stressful life and over-consumption of energy-dense foods. This process, labelled ‘coca-colonization’, is evident all over the world, although more so in developing countries. The prevalence of diabetes mellitus varies among populations due to differences in genetic susceptibility and social risk factors such as change in diet, obesity, physical inactivity and, possibly, factors relating to intrauterine development. Migrants are especially affected. Diabetes mellitus needs to be treated by a holistic approach through dietary adjustment, exercise, medication (if needed), education and self-care measures. Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a preventable disease. The main implication for nurses and nursing curricula is to change the focus from the individual with diabetes mellitus and management to prevent deterioration of health (secondary prevention), to population-based community-intervention programmes. These need to focus on health promoting activities to raise awareness among healthy people of the risk factors for diabetes mellitus.
Conclusion. Nurses all over the world have an important role in fighting the diabetic pandemic by health promotion aimed to keep people healthy as long as possible.
References
-
Alberti K.G.M.M. &
Zimmet P. (1998) Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Part 1: Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Provisional report of a WHO consultation.
Diabetic Medicine
15, 539–553.
10.1002/(SICI)1096-9136(199807)15:7<539::AID-DIA668>3.0.CO;2-S CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
- American Diabetes Association (1997) Report of the expert committee on the diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 20, 1183–1197.
- Amos A., McCarty D.J. & Zimmet P. (1997) The rising global burden of diabetes and its complications: estimates and projections to the year 2010. Diabetic Medicine 14, S7–S85.
-
Anderson R.,
Funnell M.,
Carlson A.,
Saleh-Stattin N.,
Cradock S. &
Skinner C. (2000) Facilitating self-care through empowerment. In Psychology in Diabetes Care ( C. Skinner &
F. Snoek eds), Wiley, New York, pp. 69–97.
10.1002/0470846569.ch4 Google Scholar
- Andersson D. (1994) Diabetes Mellitus in a Defined Population. A Longitudinal Study with Special Reference to Early Diagnosis, Occurrence and Mortality . Dissertation. The Department of Family Medicine, University Hospital, Uppsala.
- Apelqvist J. & Larsson J. (2000) What is the most effective way to reduce incidence of amputation in the diabetic foot? Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews 16 (Suppl. 1), S75–S83.
- Atkinson M.A. & Maclaren N.K. (1994) The pathogenesis of insulin dependent diabetes. New England Journal of Medicine 331, 1428–1436.
-
Bandura A. (1995) Exercise of personal and collective efficacy in changing societies. In Self-Efficacy in Changing Societies ( A. Bandura ed.), Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 1–45.
10.1017/CBO9780511527692.003 Google Scholar
- Barker D.J.P. & Martyn C.N. (1992) The maternal and fetal origins of cardiovascular disease. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 46, 8–11.
- Berger B., Stenström G., Chang Y. & Sundkvist G. (1998) The prevalence of diabetes in a Swedish population of 280,411 inhabitants. Diabetes Care 21, 546–548.
- Berry J.W. (1990) Acculturation and adaptation in a new society. International Migration 30, 69–86.
- Brod M. (1998) Quality of life issues in patients with diabetes and lower extremity ulcers: patients and care givers. Quality of Life Research 7, 365–372.
- Bury M. (1997) Health and Illness in a Changing Society. Routledge, London.
- Cantor A.B., Krischer J.P., Cuthbertson D.D., Schatz D.A., Riley W.J., Malone J., Schwartz S., Quattrin T. & Maclaren N.K. (1995) Age and family relationship accentuate the risk of IDDM in relatives of patients with insulin dependent diabetes. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 80, 3739–3743.
- Capriotti T. & McLaughlin S. (1998) A revitalized battle against diabetes mellitus for the new millennium. MEDSURG Nursing 7, 323–342.
- Carter J., Pugh J. & Monterrosa A. (1996) Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in minorities in the United States. Annals of Internal Medicine 125, 221–231.
- Charmaz K. (1991) Good Days, Bad Days. The Self in Chronic Illness and Time. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ, USA.
- Clement S. (1995) Diabetes self-management education. Diabetes Care 18, 1204–1214.
- Connolly V., Unwin N., Sheriff P., Bilous R. & Kelly W. (2000) Diabetes prevalence and socioeconomic status: a population based study showing increased prevalence of Type 2 diabetes mellitus in deprived areas. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 54, 173–177.
- Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group (DCCT) (1993) The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. New England Journal of Medicine 329, 977–986.
- Diamond J.M. (1992) Diabetes running wild. Nature 357, 362–363.
- Dowse G. & Zimmet P. (1993) The thrifty genotype in non-insulin-dependent diabetes: the hypothesis survives (Editorial). British Medical Journal 306, 532–533.
- Erasmus R.T., Blanco Blanco E., Okesina A.B., Matsha T., Gqweta Z. & Mesa J.A. (2001) Prevalence of diabetes mellitus and impaired glucose tolerance in factory workers from Transkei, South Africa. South African Medical Journal 91, 157–160.
- Eriksson J., Lindström J. & Tuomilehto J. (2001) British Medical Bulletin 60, 183–199.
- Fujimoto W.Y. (1996) Overview of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) in different population groups. Diabetic Medicine 13 (Suppl. 6), S7–S10.
- Groop L. & Orho-Melander M. (2001) The dysmetabolic syndrome. Journal of Internal Medicine 250, 105–120.
- Hales C. & Barker D. (1992) Type 2 diabetes mellitus: the thrifty phenotype hypothesis. Diabetologia 35, 595–601.
- Harpham T. (1994) Cities and health in the third world. In Health and Development ( D. Philips & Y. Verhasselt eds), Routledge, London, pp. 111–121.
-
Hayes M. (2001) A phenomenological study of chronic sorrow in people with type 1 diabetes.
Practical Diabetes International
18, 65–69.
10.1002/pdi.123 Google Scholar
- Hazuda H.P., Hafner S.M., Stern M.P. & Eifler C.W. (1993) Effects of acculturation and socioeconomic status on obesity and diabetes in Mexican Americans. American Journal of Epidemiology 46, 181–191.
- Henderson V. (1969) Basic Principles of Nursing Care. International Council of Nurses, Basel.
- Hjelm K. (1998) Migration, Health and Diabetes Mellitus. Studies Comparing Foreign- and Swedish-born Diabetic Subjects Living in Sweden . Dissertation. Department of Community Medicine, Lund.
- Hjelm K., Apelqvist J., Nyberg P., Sundquist J. & Isacson Å. (1997) Health, health care utilization and living conditions in foreign-born diabetic patients in southern Sweden. Journal of Internal Medicine 242, 131–141.
-
Hjelm K.,
Isacsson Å. &
Apelqvist J. (1998) Health care professionals' perceptions of beliefs about health and illness in migrants with diabetes mellitus.
Practical Diabetes International
15, 233–237.
10.1002/pdi.1960150808 Google Scholar
- Hjelm K., Isacsson Å., Apelqvist J., Sundquist J. & Nyberg P. (1996) Foreign- and Swedish-born diabetic patients – a population-based study of prevalence, glycaemic control and social position. Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine 24, 243–252.
- Hjelm K., Nyberg P., Isacsson Å. & Apelqvist J. (1999) Beliefs about health and illness essential for self-care practice: a comparison of migrant Yugoslavian and Swedish diabetic females. Journal of Advanced Nursing 30, 1147–1159.
-
Hjelm K.,
Nyberg P. &
Apelqvist J. (2002a) The diabetic foot – multidisciplinary management from the patient's perspective.
Clinical Effectiveness in Nursing
6, 66–77.
10.1016/S1361-9004(02)00038-9 Google Scholar
-
Hjelm K.,
Sundquist J. &
Apelqvist J. (2002b) The influence of socioeconomic status and lifestyle on self-reported health in diabetics and non-diabetics: a comparison of foreign- and Swedish-born individuals.
Primary Health Care Research and Development
3, 249–259.
10.1191/1463423602pc108oa Google Scholar
- Hull D. (1979) Migration adaptation, and illness: a review. Social Science and Medicine 13, 25–36.
- Kemp J. & Tindiweegi J. (2001) Nurse education in Mbarara, Uganda. Journal of Advanced Nursing 33, 8–12.
- Kickbush I. (1996) New players for a new era: how up to date is health promotion? Health Promotion International 11, 259–261.
- King H. & Rewers M. (1991) Diabetes in adults is now a Third World problem. The WHO Ad Hoc Diabetes Reporting Group. Bulletin World Health Organization 69, 643–648.
- King H. & Rewers M. (1993) Global estimates for prevalence of diabetes mellitus and impaired glucose tolerance in adults. Diabetes Care 16, 157–177.
- Kloos H. (1994) The poorer third world: health and health care in areas that have yet to experience substantial development. In Health and Development ( D. Philips & Y. Verhasselt eds), Routledge, London, pp. 199–215.
- Lazarus R.S. & Folkman S. (1984) Stress, Appraisal and Coping. Springer, New York.
- Leininger M. (1991) Culture Care Diversity and Universality: a Theory of Nursing. National League for Nursing Press, New York.
- Lithman T. (1982) Data Systems in Health Planning. An Evaluation of Population-based Data Systems as Tools for Health Planning . Dissertation. Studentlitteratur, Lund.
- Mackintosh N. (1996) Promoting Health: an Issue for Nursing. Quay Books, Dinton.
- McCance D.R., Pettit D.J., Hansson R.L., Jacobsson L.T.H., Knowler W.C. & Bennett P.H. (1994) Birth weight and non-insulin dependent diabetes: thrifty genotype, thrifty phenotype, or surviving small baby genotype? British Medical Journal 308, 942–945.
- McLarty D. (1995) Some aspects of diabetes in Tanzania. Diabetes Reviews Internation 3, 6–9.
- McLarty D., Swai A. & Kitange H. (1989) Prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance in rural Tanzania. Lancet i, 871–875.
- Meadows P. (1995) Variation of diabetes mellitus prevalence in general practice and its relation to deprivation. Diabetic Medicine 12, 696–700.
- Melander O., Mattiasson I., Marsal K. & Groop L. (1999) Heredity for hypertension influences intrauterine growth and the relation between foetal growth and adult blood pressure. Journal of Hypertension 17, 1557–1561.
- Ministry of Health and Child Welfare Zimbabwe (1999) National Health Strategy for Zimbabwe 1997–2007. Ministry of Health and Child Welfare, Zimbabwe.
- Ministry of Health – Republic of Uganda (1999) National Health Policy. Ministry of Health, Uganda.
- Mudiayi T.K., Onyanga-Omara A. & Gelman M.L. (1997) Trends of morbidity in general medicine at United Bulawayon Hospitals, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. Central African Journal of Medicine 43, 213–219.
- Murray C.J.L. & Lopez A.D. (1997) Mortality by cause for eight regions of the world: global burden of disease study. Lancet 349, 1269–1276.
- Nabarro J. (1988) Diabetes in the United Kingdom: some facts and figures. Diabetic Medicine 5, 816–817.
- National Diabetes Data Group (1995) Diabetes in America, 2nd edn. NIH Publication no. 95-1468. National Institutes of Health & National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, USA.
- Neel J.V. (1962) Diabetes mellitus: a thrifty genotype rendered detrimental by ‘progress’? American Journal of Human Genetics 14, 353–362.
- Odugbesan O., Rowe B., Fletcher J., Walford S. & Barnett A.H. (1989) Diabetes in the UK West Indian Community: the Wolverhampton Survey. Diabetic Medicine 6, 48–52.
-
Philips D. &
Verhasselt Y. (1994a) Introduction: health and development. In Health and Development ( D. Philips &
Y. Verhasselt, eds), Routledge, London, pp. 3–32.
10.4324/9780203307939 Google Scholar
-
Philips D. &
Verhasselt Y. (1994b) Health and development: retrospect and prospect. In Health and Development ( D. Philips &
Y. Verhasselt eds), Routledge, London, pp. 301–318.
10.4324/9780203307939 Google Scholar
- Ragnarson Tennvall G. & Apelqvist J. (1997) Cost-effective management of diabetic foot ulcers. Pharmacoeconomics 12, 42–53.
- Scherstén B. (1997) Att förebygga typ 2 diabetes – realitet eller utopi? (To prevent Type 2 diabetes – reality or utopia?). Diabetolognytt 4/5, 17–23.
- Simmons D., Williams D. & Powell M. (1991) The Coventry diabetes study. Prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance in Europids and Asians. Q J M: Monthly Journal of the Association of Physicians 81, 1021–1030.
- Skyler J. (1997) Relation of metabolic control of diabetes mellitus to chronic complications. In Diabetes Mellitus Theory and Practice ( M. Ellenberg & H. Rifkin eds), Medical Examination Publishing Co. Inc, New York, pp. 856–868.
- Socialstyrelsen (1999) Medicinsk Faktadatabas Nationella Riktlinjer För Vård Och Behandling Vid Diabetes Mellitus (National Board of Health and Welfare. Data Base with Medical Facts. National Guidelines for Care and Treatment of Patients with Diabetes Mellitus). LTAB Linköpings Tryckeri, Linköping.
- Strauss A.L., Corbin J., Fagerhaugh S., Glaser B.G., Maines D., Suczek B. & Wiener C.L. (1984) Chronic Illness and the Quality of Life. The C.V. Mosby Company, St Louis.
-
Sutton M.,
McGrath C.,
Brady L. &
Ward J. (2000) Diabetic foot care: assessing the impact of care on the whole patient.
Practical Diabetes International
17, 147–151.
10.1002/1528-252X(200007/08)17:5<147::AID-PDI57>3.0.CO;2-8 Google Scholar
- Ternulf Nyhlin K. (1990) Patients Experiences in the Self-Management of Diabetes Mellitus – Walking a Fine Line. Dissertation. Umeå Universitet, Umeå.
- Tuomilehto J., Knowler W.C. & Zimmet P. (1992) Primary prevention of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabetes/Metabolism Reviews 8, 339–353.
- Tuomilehto J., Lindstrom J., Eriksson J.G., Valle T.T., Hamalainen H., Ilanne-Parikka P., Keinanen-Kiukaanniemi S., Laakso M., Louheranta A., Rastas M., Salminen V. & Uusitupa M. (2001) Prevention of Type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. New England Journal of Medicine 344, 1343–1350.
- Turner R.C. (1998) The UK Prospective Diabetes Study. A review. Diabetes Care 21 (Suppl. 3), C35–C38.
- Unwin N., Mugusi F., Aspray T., Whiting D., Edwards R., Mbanya J.C., Sobgnwi E., Rashid S. & Alberti K.G.M.M. (1999) Tackling the emerging pandemic of non-communicable diseases in sub-Saharan Africa: the essential NCD health intervention project. Public Health 113, 141–146.
- Whitehead D. (1999) The nature of health promotion in acute and community settings. British Journal of Nursing 8, 463–467.
- Whitehead D. (2000) What is the role of health promotion in nursing? Professional Nurse 15, 257–259.
- Whitehead D. (2001) Health education, behavioural change and social psychology: nursing's contribution to health promotion? Journal of Advanced Nursing 34, 822–832.
- Wikblad K. (1991) Patient perspectives of diabetes care and education. Journal of Advanced Nursing 16, 837–844.
- Wikblad K. & Montin K. (1992) Coping with a chronic disease. Diabetes Educator 18, 316–320.
- William-Olsson L. (1986) Diabetikers Livsvillkor . Dissertation. Pedagogiska institutionen, Stockholms universitet, Stockholm.
- World Health Organization (WHO) (1997) The World Health Report 1997: Conquering, Suffering, Enriching Humanity. WHO, Geneva.
- World Health Organization (WHO) (1999) The World Health Report 1999. Making a Difference. WHO, Geneva.
- Zimmet P. (1982) Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes – an epidemiological overview. Diabetologia 22, 399–411.
- Zimmet P. (1995) The pathogenesis and prevention of diabetes in adults. Diabetes Care 18, 1050–1064.
- Zimmet P. (2000) Globalization, coca-colonization and the chronic disease epidemic: can the Doomsday scenario be averted? Journal of Internal Medicine 247, 301–310.
- Zimmet P., Alberti K.G. & Shaw J. (2001) Global and societal implications of the diabetes epidemic. Nature 414, 782–787.
- Zimmet P.Z., McCarty D.J. & De-Courten M.P. (1997) The global epidemiology of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and the metabolic syndrome. Journal of Diabetes Complications 11, 60–68.
Citing Literature
