Research Article
Semi-quantitative reconstruction of early to late Holocene spring and summer sea ice conditions in the northern Barents Sea
Sarah M. P. Berben,
Katrine Husum,
Alba Navarro-Rodriguez,
Simon T. Belt,
Steffen Aagaard-Sørensen,
Corresponding Author
Sarah M. P. Berben
Department of Geology, UiT – The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, N-9037, Norway
Correspondence: S. M. P. Berben. Current address: Department of Earth Science, University of Bergen and the Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research, N-5007 Bergen, Norway.
E-mail: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorKatrine Husum
Fram Centre, Norwegian Polar Institute, Tromsø, N-9296, Norway
Search for more papers by this authorAlba Navarro-Rodriguez
Biogeochemistry Research Centre, School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
Search for more papers by this authorSimon T. Belt
Biogeochemistry Research Centre, School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
Search for more papers by this authorSteffen Aagaard-Sørensen
Department of Geology, UiT – The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, N-9037, Norway
Search for more papers by this authorSarah M. P. Berben,
Katrine Husum,
Alba Navarro-Rodriguez,
Simon T. Belt,
Steffen Aagaard-Sørensen,
Corresponding Author
Sarah M. P. Berben
Department of Geology, UiT – The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, N-9037, Norway
Correspondence: S. M. P. Berben. Current address: Department of Earth Science, University of Bergen and the Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research, N-5007 Bergen, Norway.
E-mail: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorKatrine Husum
Fram Centre, Norwegian Polar Institute, Tromsø, N-9296, Norway
Search for more papers by this authorAlba Navarro-Rodriguez
Biogeochemistry Research Centre, School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
Search for more papers by this authorSimon T. Belt
Biogeochemistry Research Centre, School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
Search for more papers by this authorSteffen Aagaard-Sørensen
Department of Geology, UiT – The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, N-9037, Norway
Search for more papers by this authorABSTRACT
Semi-quantitative estimates of early to late Holocene spring sea ice concentration (SpSIC) and occurrence of summer sea ice for the northern Barents Sea have been obtained by analysing the biomarkers IP25, brassicasterol and a tri-unsaturated highly branched isoprenoid lipid in a Holocene marine sediment core. Sub-surface water mass variations were derived from planktic foraminiferal assemblages and stable isotopes (δ18O, δ13C). The record indicates paleoceanographic changes over three intervals. During Period I (ca. 9500–5900 cal a BP), the study location experienced the lowest recorded SpSIC (ca. 25%) with short spring seasons and long productive summers, resulting partly from increased Atlantic Water inflow that caused a stronger ocean–atmosphere heat exchange. Throughout Period II (ca. 5900–2700 cal a BP), the winter sea ice margin migrated southwards and an overall cooling trend resulted in higher SpSIC (ca. 60%) and increased delivery of cold Arctic Water. During Period III (ca. 2700 cal a BP to present), SpSIC increased further (ca. 75%) and some sea ice remained during summer months. A sub-surface warming probably indicates a decoupling of heat exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere. Longer springs and shorter summers were accompanied by the most southerly location of the winter sea ice margin.
Supporting Information
Additional supporting information related to this article may be found in the online version of this article.
| Filename | Description |
|---|---|
| jqs2953-sup-0001-SuppTable-S1.xlsx212.1 KB | Table S1. CTD data presented in Fig. |
| jqs2953-sup-0002-SuppTable-S2.xlsx12 KB | Table S2. Age model presented in Fig. |
| jqs2953-sup-0003-SuppTable-S3.xlsx16.7 KB | Table S3. Biomarker data presented in Fig. |
| jqs2953-sup-0004-SuppTable-S4.xlsx14.4 KB | Table S4. Foraminiferal fauna data presented in Fig. |
| jqs2953-sup-0005-SuppTable-S5.xlsx20.8 KB | Table S5. Stable isotope data presented in Fig. |
Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.
References
- Abrahamsen E, Østerhus S, Gammelsrød T. 2006. Ice draft and current measurements from the north-western Barents Sea, 1993–96. Polar Research 25: 25–37.
- Aksenov Y, Bacon S, Coward AC et al. 2010. The North Atlantic inflow to the Arctic Ocean: high-resolution model study. Journal of Marine Systems 79: 1–22.
- Aksu AE, Vilks G. 1988. Stable isotopes in planktonic and benthic foraminifera from Arctic Ocean surface sediments. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 25: 701–709.
- Andersson C, Pausata FSR, Jansen E et al. 2010. Holocene trends in the foraminifer record from the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean. Climate of the Past 6: 179–193.
- Årthun M, Eldevik T, Smedsrud LH et al. 2012. Quantifying the influence of Atlantic heat on Barents Sea ice variability and retreat. Journal of Climate 25: 4736–4743.
- Barker S, Elderfield H. 2002. Foraminiferal calcification response to glacial-interglacial changes in atmospheric CO2. Science 297: 833–836.
- Barker S, Kiefer T, Elderfield H. 2004. Temporal changes in North Atlantic circulation constrained by planktonic foraminiferal shell weights. Paleoceanography 19: PA3008.
- Bauch D, Carstens J, Wefer G et al. 2000. The imprint of anthropogenic CO2 in the Arctic Ocean: evidence from planktic d 13 C data from water column and sediment surfaces. Deep-Sea Research Part II 9–11: 1791–1808.
- Bauch D, Carstens J, Wefer G. 1997. Oxygen isotope composition of living Neogloboquadrina pachyderma (sin.) in the Arctic Ocean. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 146: 47–58.
- Bé AWH, Tolderlund DS. 1971. Distribution and ecology of living planktonic foraminifera in surface waters of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. In The Micropaleontology of Oceans, BM Funnel, WR Riedel (eds). Cambridge University Press: London; 105–149.
- Belt ST, Brown TA, Rodriguez AN et al. 2012. A reproducible method for the extraction, identification and quantification of the Arctic sea ice proxy IP25 from marine sediments. Analytical Methods 4: 705–713.
- Belt ST, Cabedo-Sanz P, Smik L et al. 2015. Identification of paleo Arctic winter sea ice limits and the marginal ice zone: Optimised biomarker-based reconstructions of late Quaternary Arctic sea ice. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 431: 127–139.
- Belt ST, Massé G, Rowland SJ et al. 2007. A novel chemical fossil of palaeo sea ice: IP25. Organic Geochemistry 38: 16–27.
- Belt ST, Müller J. 2013. The Arctic sea ice biomarker IP25: a review of current understanding, recommendations for future research and applications in palaeo sea ice reconstructions. Quaternary Science Reviews 79: 9–25.
- Belt ST, Vare LL, Massé G et al. 2010. Striking similarities in temporal changes to spring sea ice occurrence across the central Canadian Arctic Archipelago over the last 7000 years. Quaternary Science Reviews 29: 3489–3504.
- Berben SMP. 2014. A Holocene palaeoceanographic multi-proxy study on the variability of Atlantic water inflow and sea ice distribution along the pathway of Atlantic water. PhD thesis, Arctic University of Norway.
- Berben SMP, Husum K, Cabedo-Sanz P et al. 2014. Holocene sub-centennial evolution of Atlantic water inflow and sea ice distribution in the western Barents Sea. Climate of the Past 10: 181–198.
- Berger A. 1978. Long-term variations of daily insolation and quaternary climatic changes. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 35: 2362–2367.
- Birgel D, Stein R. 2004. Northern Fram Strait and Yermak Plateau: Distribution, variability and burial of organic carbon and paleoenvironmental implications. In The Organic Carbon Cycle in the Arctic Ocean, R Stein, RW Macdonald (eds). Springer-Verlag: Berlin; 279–295.
- Birgel D, Stein R, Hefter J. 2004. Aliphatic lipids in recent sediments of the Fram Strait/Yermak Plateau (Arctic Ocean): composition, sources and transport processes. Marine Chemistry 88: 127–160.
- Bjune AE, Seppä H, Birks HJB. 2009. Quantitative summer-temperature reconstructions for the last 2000 years based on pollen-stratigraphical data from northern Fennoscandia. Journal of Paleolimnology 41: 43–56.
- Broecker WS, Clark E. 2001. An evaluation of Lohmann's foraminifera weight dissolution index. Paleoceanography 16: 531–534.
- Brown TA, Belt ST. 2012. Identification of the sea ice diatom biomarker IP25 in Arctic benthic macrofauna: Direct evidence for a sea ice diatom diet in Arctic heterotrophs. Polar Biology 35: 131–137.
- Brown TA, Belt ST, Philippe B et al. 2011. Temporal and vertical variations of lipid biomarkers during a bottom ice diatom bloom in the Canadian Beaufort Sea: Further evidence for the use of the IP25 biomarker as a proxy for spring Arctic sea ice. Polar Biology 34: 1857–1868.
- Brown TA, Belt ST, Tatarek A et al. 2014. Source identification of the Arctic sea ice proxy IP25. Nature Communications 5: 4197.
- Burhol ALS. 1994. Recent distribution of planktonic foraminifera on the Svalbard-Barents margin. Master's thesis, University of Tromsø.
-
Cabedo-Sanz P,
Belt ST.
2016a. Seasonal sea ice variability in eastern Fram Strait over the last 2000 years.
Arktos
2: 1–12.
10.1007/s41063-016-0023-2 Google Scholar
- Cabedo-Sanz P, Belt ST, Jennings AE et al. 2016b. Variability in drift ice export from the Arctic Ocean to the North Icelandic Shelf over the last 8000 years: A multi-proxy evaluation. Quaternary Science Reviews 146: 99–115.
- Cabedo-Sanz P, Belt ST, Knies J et al. 2013. Identification of contrasting seasonal sea ice conditions during the Younger Dryas. Quaternary Science Reviews 79: 74–86.
- Carmack E, Barber D, Christensen J et al. 2006. Climate variability and physical forcing of the food webs and the carbon budget on panarctic shelves. Progress in Oceanography 71: 145–181.
- Carstens J, Hebbeln D, Wefer G. 1997. Distribution of planktic foraminifera at the ice margin in the Arctic (Fram Strait). Marine Micropaleontology 29: 257–269.
- Cifelli R. 1961. Globigerina incompta, a new species of pelagic foraminifera from the North Atlantic. Contributions Cushman Foundation Foraminiferal Research 12: 83–86.
- Conan SM-H, Ivanova EM, Brummer G-JA. 2002. Quantifying carbonate dissolution and calibration of foraminiferal dissolution indices in the Somali Basin. Marine Geology 182: 325–349.
- Darling KF, Kucera M, Kroon D et al. 2006. A resolution for the coiling direction paradox in Neogloboquadrina pachyderma. Paleoceanography 21: PA2011.
- Divine D, Isaksson E, Martma T et al. 2011. Thousand years of winter surface air temperature variations in Svalbard and northern Norway reconstructed from ice-core data. Polar Research 30: 7379.
- Divine DV, Dick C. 2006. Historical variability of sea ice edge position in the Nordic Seas. Journal of Geophysical Research 111: C01001.
- Donner B, Wefer G. 1994. Flux and stable isotope composition of Neogloboquadrina pachyderma and other planktonic foraminifers in the Southern Ocean (Atlantic sector). Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers 41: 1733–1743.
- Duplessy JC, Cortijo E, Ivanova E et al. 2005. Paleoceanography of the Barents Sea during the Holocene. Paleoceanography 20: A4004.
- Duplessy JC, Ivanova E, Murdmaa I et al. 2001. Holocene paleoceanography of the northern Barents Sea and variations of the northward heat transport by the Atlantic Ocean. Boreas 30: 2–16.
- Ellingsen I, Slagstad D, Sundfjord A. 2009. Modification of water masses in the Barents Sea and its coupling to ice dynamics: a model study. Ocean Dynamics 59: 1095–1108.
- Fahl K, Stein R. 2012. Modern seasonal variability and deglacial/Holocene change of central Arctic Ocean sea-ice cover: New insights from biomarker proxy records. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 351–352: 123–133.
- Fairbanks RG. 1989. A 17,000-year glacio-eustatic sea level record: influence of glacial melting rates on the Younger Dryas event and deep-ocean circulation. Nature 342: 637–642.
- Farmer EJ, Chapman MR, Andrews JE. 2008. Centennial-scale Holocene North Atlantic surface temperatures from Mg/Ca ratios in Globigerina bulloides. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 9: Q12029.
- Forcino FL. 2012. Multivariate assessment of the required sample size for community paleoecological research. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 315–316: 134–141.
- Gammelsrød T, Leikvin Ø, Lien V et al. 2009. Mass and heat transports in the NE Barents Sea: Observations and models. Journal of Marine Systems 75: 56–69.
- Hald M, Andersson C, Ebbesen H et al. 2007. Variations in temperature and extent of Atlantic water in the northern North Atlantic during the Holocene. Quaternary Science Reviews 26: 3423–3440.
- Hebbeln D, Henrich R, Baumann KH. 1998. Paleoceanography of the last glacial/interglacial cycle in the Polar North Atlantic. Quaternary Science Reviews 17: 125–153.
- Henrich R, Baumann KH, Huber R et al. 2002. Carbonate preservation records of the past 3 Myr in the Norwegian–Greenland Sea and the northern North Atlantic: implications for the history of NADW production. Marine Geology 184: 17–39.
- Hopkins TS. 1991. The GIN Sea: A synthesis of its physical oceanography and literature review, 1972–1985. Earth-Science Reviews 30: 175–318.
- Ivanov VV, Alexeev VA, Repina I et al. 2012. Tracing Atlantic water signature in the Arctic Sea ice cover East of Svalbard. Advances in Meteorology 2012: 201818, 11.
-
Jakobsson M,
Grantz A,
Kristoffersen Y et al.
2004. Physiography and bathymetry of the Arctic Ocean. In
The Organic Carbon Cycle in the Arctic Ocean, R Stein, RW Macdonald (eds).
Springer:
New York; 1–5.
10.1007/978-3-642-18912-8_1 Google Scholar
- Jernas P, Klitgaard Kristensen D, Husum K et al. 2013. Palaeoenvironmental changes of the last two millennia on the western and northern Svalbard shelf. Boreas 42: 236–255.
-
Johannessen T,
Jansen E,
Flatøy A et al.
1994. The relationship between surface water masses, oceanographic fronts and paleoclimatic proxies in surface sediments of the Greenland, Iceland, Norwegian Seas. In
Carbon Cycling in the Glacial Ocean: Constraints of the Ocean's Role in Global Change, R Zahn, TF Pedersen, MA Kaminski, L Labeyrie (eds).
Springer:
Berlin; 61–86.
10.1007/978-3-642-78737-9_4 Google Scholar
- Jonkers L, Brummer G-JA, Peeters FJC et al. 2010. Seasonal stratification, shell flux, and oxygen isotope dynamics of left-coiling N. pachyderma and T. quinqueloba in the western sub polar North Atlantic. Paleoceanography 25: PA2204.
- Katz ME, Cramer BS, Franzese A et al. 2010. Traditional and emerging geochemical proxies in foraminifera. Journal of Foraminiferal Research 40: 165–192.
- Kaufman D, Ager TA, Anderson NJ et al. 2004. Holocene thermal maximum in the western Arctic (0–180°W). Quaternary Science Reviews 23: 529–560.
- Kaufman DS, Schneider DP, McKay NP et al. 2009. Recent warming reverses long-term arctic cooling. Science 325: 1236–1239.
- Keigwin LD, Boyle EA. 1989. Late Quaternary paleochemistry of high-latitude surface waters. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 73: 85–106.
- Klitgaard Kristensen D, Rasmussen TL, Koç N. 2013. Paleoceanographic changes in the northern Barents Sea during the last 16 000 years – new constraints on the last deglaciation of the Svalbard-Barents Ice Sheet. Boreas 42: 798–813.
- Knies J, Cabedo-Sanz P, Belt ST et al. 2014. The emergence of modern sea ice cover in the Arctic Ocean. Nature Communications 5: 5608.
- Knudsen KL. 1998. Foraminiferer i Kvartær stratigrafi: Laboratorie og fremstillingsteknik samt udvalgte eksempler. Geologisk Tidsskrift 3: 1–25.
- Koç N, Jansen E, Haflidason H. 1993. Paleoceanographic reconstructions of surface ocean conditions in the Greenland, Iceland and Norwegian seas through the last 14 ka based on diatoms. Quaternary Science Reviews 12: 115–140.
- Kohfeld KE, Fairbanks RG, Smith SL et al. 1996. Neogloboquadrina pachyderma (sinistral coiling) as paleoceanographic tracers in polar oceans: evidence from northeast water polynya plankton tows, sediment traps, and surface sediments. Paleoceanography 11: 679–699.
- Kwok R. 2009. Outflow of Arctic Ocean sea ice into the Greenland and Barents Seas: 1979–2007. Journal of Climate 22: 2438–2457.
- Kwok R, Maslowski W, Laxon SW. 2005. On large outflows of Arctic sea ice into the Barents Sea. Geophysical Research Letters 32: L22503.
- Laskar J, Robutel P, Joutel F et al. 2004. A long-term numerical solution for the insolation quantities of the Earth. Astronomy and Astrophysics 428: 261–285.
- Loeng H. 1991. Features of the physical oceanographic conditions of the Barents Sea. Polar Research 10: 5–18.
- Loeng H, Ozhigin V, Ådlandsvik B, Sagen H. 1993. Current Measurements in the northeastern Barents Sea, International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, Council Meeting 1993/C:41, Hydrographic Committee; 22.
- Lubinski DJ, Polyak L, Forman SL. 2001. Freshwater and Atlantic water inflows to the deep northern Barents and Kara seas since ca 13 14C ka: foraminifera and stable isotopes. Quaternary Science Reviews 20: 1851–1879.
- Mangerud J, Bondevik S, Gulliksen S et al. 2006. Marine 14C reservoir ages for 19th century whales and molluscs from the North Atlantic. Quaternary Science Reviews 25: 3228–3245.
- Manley TO. 1995. Branching of Atlantic Water within the Greenland-Spitsbergen Passage: an estimate of recirculation. Journal of Geophysical Research 100: 20627–20634.
- Massé G, Rowland SJ, Sicre M-A et al. 2008. Abrupt climate changes for Iceland during the last millennium: Evidence from high resolution sea ice reconstructions. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 269: 565–569.
- Méheust M, Fahl K, Stein R. 2013. Variability in modern sea surface temperature, sea ice and terrigenous input in the sub-polar North Pacific and Bering Sea: Reconstruction from biomarker data. Organic Geochemistry 57: 54–64.
- Méheust M, Stein R, Fahl K et al. 2016. High-resolution IP25-based reconstruction of sea-ice variability in the western North Pacific and Bering Sea during the past 18,000 years. Geo-Marine Letters 36: 101–111.
- Midttun L. 1985. Formation of dense bottom water in the Barents Sea. Deep Sea Research Part A. Oceanographic Research Papers 32: 1233–1241.
- Müller J, Massé G, Stein R et al. 2009. Variability of sea-ice conditions in the Fram Strait over the past 30,000 years. Nature Geoscience 2: 772–776.
- Müller J, Stein R. 2014. High-resolution record of late glacial and deglacial sea ice changes in Fram Strait corroborates ice–ocean interactions during abrupt climate shifts. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 403: 446–455.
- Müller J, Wagner A, Fahl K et al. 2011. Towards quantitative sea ice reconstructions in the northern North Atlantic: A combined biomarker and numerical modelling approach. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 306: 137–148.
- Müller J, Werner K, Stein R et al. 2012. Holocene cooling culminates in sea ice oscillations in Fram Strait. Quaternary Science Reviews 47: 1–14.
- Navarro-Rodriguez A, Belt ST, Knies J et al. 2013. Mapping recent sea ice conditions in the Barents Sea using the proxy biomarker IP25: Implications for palaeo sea ice reconstructions. Quaternary Science Reviews 79: 26–39.
- Novitskiy VP. 1961. Permanent currents of the northern Barents Sea. Trudy Gosudarstvennogo Okeanograficheskogo Instituta 64: 1–32. (English Translation).
- Oppo DW, Fairbanks RG. 1989. Carbon isotope composition of tropical surface water during the past 22,000 years. Paleoceanography 4: 333–351.
- Pados T, Spielhagen RF. 2014. Species distribution and depth habitat of recent planktic foraminifera in Fram Strait, Arctic Ocean. Polar Research 33: 22483.
-
Pfirman SL,
Bauch D,
Gammelsrød T.
1994. The Northern Barents Sea: water mass distribution and modification. In
The Polar Oceans and Their Role in Shaping the Global Environment, OM Johannessen, RD Muench, JE Overland (eds). AGU Geoph. Monog. Series
85: 77–94.
10.1029/GM085p0077 Google Scholar
- Pfuhl HA, Shackleton NJ. 2004. Two proximal, high-resolution records of foraminiferal fragmentation and their implications for changes in dissolution. Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers 51: 809–832.
- Polyak L, Belt ST, Cabedo-Sanz P et al. 2016. Holocene sea-ice conditions and circulation at the Chukchi-Alaskan margin, Arctic Ocean, inferred from biomarker proxies. The Holocene 26: 1810–1821.
- Rasmussen TL, Thomsen E, Slubowska MA et al. 2007. Paleoceanographic evolution of the SW Svalbard margin (76°N) since 20,000 14C yr BP. Quaternary Research 67: 100–114.
- Reimer PJ, Baillie MGL, Bard E et al. 2009. IntCal09 and Marine09 radiocarbon age calibration curves, 0–50,000 years cal BP. Radiocarbon 51: 1111–1150.
- Renssen H, Goosse H, Muscheler R. 2006. Coupled climate model simulation of Holocene cooling events: oceanic feedback amplifies solar forcing. Climate of the Past 2: 79–90.
- Risebrobakken B, Dokken T, Smedsrud LH et al. 2011. Early Holocene temperature variability in the Nordic Seas: the role of oceanic heat advection versus changes in orbital forcing. Paleoceanography 26: PA4206.
- Risebrobakken B, Moros M, Ivanova EV et al. 2010. Climate and oceanographic variability in the SW Barents Sea during the Holocene. The Holocene 20: 609–621.
- Rudels B. 1987. On the mass balance of the Polar Ocean, with special emphasis on the Fram Strait. Norsk Polarinstitutt Skrifter 188: 53.
- Rudels B, Korhonen M, Schauer U et al. 2015. Circulation and transformation of Atlantic water in the Eurasian Basin and the contribution of the Fram Strait inflow branch to the Arctic Ocean heat budget. Progress in Oceanography 132: 128–152.
- Sakshaug E, Bjørge A, Gulliksen B et al. 1992. Økosystem Barentshavet. Norges Allmenvitenskapelige Forskningsråd, Norges Fiskeriforskningsråd, Miljøverndepartementet, 304.
- Sarnthein M, Van Kreveld S, Erlenkeuser H et al. 2003. Centennial-to-millennial-scale periodicities of Holocene climate and sediment injections off the western Barents shelf, 75°N. Boreas 32: 447–461.
- Schauer U, Loeng H, Rudels B et al. 2002. Atlantic Water flow through the Barents and Kara Seas. Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers 49: 2281–2298.
- Screen JA, Simmonds I. 2010. The central role of diminishing sea ice in recent Arctic temperature amplification. Nature 464: 1334–1337.
- Serreze MC, Barrett AP, Slater AG et al. 2007. The large-scale energy budget of the Arctic. Journal of Geophysical Research 112: D11122.
- Serreze MC, Francis JA. 2006. The arctic amplification debate. Climatic Change 76: 241–264.
- Shimada K, Kamoshida T, Itoh M et al. 2006. Pacific Ocean inflow: influence on catastrophic reduction of sea ice cover in the Arctic Ocean. Geophysical Research Letters 33: L08605.
- Simstich J, Sarnthein M, Erlenkeuser H. 2003. Paired δ18O signals of N. pachyderma (s) and T. quinqueloba show thermal stratification structure in the Nordic Seas. Marine Micropaleontology 48: 107–125.
- Skirbekk K, Kristensen DK, Rasmussen TL et al. 2010. Holocene climate variations at the entrance to a warm Arctic fjord: evidence from Kongsfjorden trough, Svalbard. Geological Society, London, Special Publications 344: 289–304.
- Slubowska MA, Koç N, Rasmussen TL et al. 2005. Changes in the flow of Atlantic water into the Arctic Ocean since the last deglaciation: Evidence from the northern Svalbard continental margin, 80N. Paleoceonography 20: PA4014.
- Smedsrud LH, Esau I, Ingvaldsen RB et al. 2013. The role of the Barents Sea in the Arctic climate system. Reviews of Geophysics 51: 415–449.
- Smik L, Cabedo-Sanz P, Belt ST. 2016. Semi-quantitative estimates of paleo Arctic sea ice concentration based on source-specific highly branched isoprenoid alkenes: a further development of the PIP25 index. Organic Geochemistry 92: 63–69.
-
Smith WO,
Sakshaug E.
1990. Polar phytoplankton. In
Polar Oceanography, Part B: Chemistry, Biology and Geology, WO Smith (ed.).
Academic Press:
New York; 447–525.
10.1016/B978-0-08-092595-0.50007-6 Google Scholar
- Sorteberg A, Kvingedal B. 2006. Atmospheric forcing on the Barents Sea winter ice extent. Journal of Climate 19: 4772–4784.
- Spielhagen RF, Erlenkeuser H. 1994. Stable oxygen and carbon isotopes in planktic foraminifers from Arctic Ocean surface sediments: reflection of the low salinity surface water layer. Marine Geology 119: 227–250.
- Spielhagen RF, Werner K, Sørensen SA et al. 2011. Enhanced modern heat transfer to the Arctic by warm Atlantic water. Science 331: 450–453.
- Stangeew E. 2001. Distribution and isotopic composition of living planktonic foraminifera N. pachyderma (sinistral) and T. quinqueloba in the high latitude North Atlantic. PhD thesis, Math.-Naturwiss. Fak., Christian-Albrechts-Univ., Kiel, Germany (available at http://e-diss.uni-kiel.de/diss_464/pp).
- Stein R, Fahl K, Schade I et al. 2017. Holocene variability in sea ice cover, primary production, and Pacific-Water inflow and climate change in the Chukchi and East Siberian Seas (Arctic Ocean). Journal of Quaternary Science 32: 362–379.
- Stein R, Fahl K, Schreck M et al. 2016. Evidence for ice-free summers in the late Miocene central Arctic Ocean. Nature Communications 7: 11148.
- Steinsund PI, Hald M. 1994. Recent calcium carbonate dissolution in the Barents Sea: Paleoceanographic applications. Marine Geology 117: 303–316.
- Stroeve J, Holland MM, Meier W et al. 2007. Arctic sea ice decline: faster than forecast. Geophysical Research Letters 34: L09501.
- Stroeve JC, Serreze MC, Holland MM et al. 2012. The Arctic's rapidly shrinking sea ice cover: a research synthesis. Climatic Change 110: 1005–1027.
- Stuiver M, Reimer PJ. 1993. Extended 14C data base and revised CALIB 3.0 14C age calibration program. Radiocarbon 35: 215–230.
- Vare LL, Massé G, Belt ST. 2010. A biomarker-based reconstruction of sea ice conditions for the Barents Sea in recent centuries. The Holocene 20: 637–643.
- Vare LL, Massé G, Gregory TR et al. 2009. Sea ice variations in the central Canadian Arctic Archipelago during the Holocene. Quaternary Science Reviews 28: 1354–1366.
- Vinje T. 2001. Anomalies and trends of sea ice extent and atmospheric circulation in the Nordic Seas during the period 1864–1998. Journal of Climate 14: 255–267.
- Vinje TE. 1977. Sea ice conditions in the European sector of the marginal seas of the Arctic, 1966-75. Aarbok Norsk Polarinstitutt 1975: 163–174.
- Volkmann R. 2000. Planktic foraminifers in the outer Laptev Sea and the Fram Strait: Modern distribution and ecology. Journal of Foraminiferal Research 30: 157–176.
- Wassmann P. 2011. Arctic marine ecosystems in an era of rapid climate change. Progress in Oceanography 90: 1–17.
- Wassmann P, Reigstad M, Haug T et al. 2006. Food webs and carbon flux in the Barents Sea. Progress in Oceanography 71: 232–287.
- Weckström K, Massé G, Collins LG et al. 2013. Evaluation of the sea ice proxy IP25 against observational and diatom proxy data in the SW Labrador Sea. Quaternary Science Reviews 79: 53–62.
- Werner K, Frank M, Teschner C et al. 2014. Neoglacial change in deep water exchange and increase of sea ice transport through eastern Fram Strait: evidence from radiogenic isotopes. Quaternary Science Reviews 92: 190–207.
- Werner K, Spielhagen RF, Bauch D et al. 2013. Atlantic Water advection versus sea ice advances in the eastern Fram Strait during the last 9 ka: Multi proxy evidence for a two-phase Holocene. Paleoceanography 28: 283–295.
- Wilson LJ, Hald M, Godtliebsen F. 2011. Foraminiferal faunal evidence of twentieth-century Barents Sea warming. The Holocene 21: 527–537.
- Woodgate RA, Weingartner TJ, Lindsay R. 2010. The 2007 Bering Strait oceanic heat flux and anomalous Arctic sea-ice retreat. Geophysical Research Letters 37: L01602.
- Xiao X, Fahl K, Müller J et al. 2015a. Sea ice distribution in the modern Arctic Ocean: biomarker records from trans-Arctic Ocean surface sediments. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 155: 16–29.
- Xiao X, Fahl K, Stein R. 2013. Biomarker distributions in surface sediments from the Kara and Laptev seas (Arctic Ocean): indicators for organic-carbon sources and sea ice coverage. Quaternary Science Reviews 79: 40–52.
- Xiao X, Stein R, Fahl K. 2015b. MIS 3 to MIS 1 temporal and LGM spatial variability in Arctic Ocean sea ice cover: Reconstruction from biomarkers. Paleoceanography 30: 969–983.
- Yang S, Christensen JH. 2012. Arctic sea ice reduction and European cold winters in CMIP5 climate change experiments. Geophysical Research Letters 39: L20707.
- Zamelczyk K, Rasmussen TL, Husum K et al. 2012. Paleoceanographic changes and calcium carbonate dissolution in the central Fram Strait during the last 20 ka. Quaternary Research 78: 405–416.
- Zamelczyk K, Rasmussen TL, Husum K et al. 2013. Marine calcium carbonate preservation vs. climate change over the last two millennia in the Fram Strait: Implications for planktic foraminiferal paleostudies. Marine Micropaleontology 98: 14–27.
