RESEARCH ARTICLE
Trajectory of Relational Victimization during Mid-Adolescence: The Effect of Gender, Childhood Maltreatment, Internalizing Problems, and Socioeconomic Status
Yixin Chen,
Jingjin Shao,
Zhi Wang,
Yixin Chen
Research Center of Mental Health Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
Search for more papers by this authorJingjin Shao
Research Center of Mental Health Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Zhi Wang
Research Center of Mental Health Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
Correspondence: Zhi Wang ([email protected])
Search for more papers by this authorYixin Chen,
Jingjin Shao,
Zhi Wang,
Yixin Chen
Research Center of Mental Health Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
Search for more papers by this authorJingjin Shao
Research Center of Mental Health Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Zhi Wang
Research Center of Mental Health Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
Correspondence: Zhi Wang ([email protected])
Search for more papers by this authorFirst published: 06 April 2025
ABSTRACT
Background
Relational victimization (RV) is a significant threat to adolescent mental health and social adaptation in China. However, its developmental characteristics during the school transition period are poorly understood. Finkelhor's developmental victimology framework provides a comprehensive lens to explore factors influencing RV's development. This study examined the trajectory of RV and the impact of gender, childhood maltreatment, internalizing problems, and family socioeconomic status.
Methods
We recruited 762 students from a high school in Sichuan Province, China, to complete three questionnaires in June 2020, December 2020, and June 2021. After excluding participants who did not fully complete all three surveys or whose data were disqualified, we obtained a final longitudinal sample of 605 participants. All participants were high school freshmen, with a mean age of 15.89 years (SD = 0.59) at the time of the final survey; participants included 264 boys. We used this data to construct a conditional growth model that incorporated both time-varying and time-invariant covariates.
Results
The results revealed that the RV of Chinese mid-adolescents follows a linear growth trend. Childhood maltreatment was found to be a predictor of the initial level of RV, while socioeconomic status predicted the rate of RV's growth. Internalizing problems were found to influence the development trajectory of RV.
Conclusion
The findings highlighted the increasing trend of RV during school transition and the roles of childhood maltreatment, socioeconomic status, and internalizing problems in shaping RV's development. This study extended the developmental victimology framework and offers valuable insights for interventions targeting adolescents’ RV.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Open Research
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author, [W]. The data are not publicly available due to their containing information that could compromise the privacy of research participants.
References
- Achenbach, T. M., L. Dumenci, and L. A. Rescorla. 2001. Ratings of Relations between DSM-IV Diagnostic Categories and Items of the CBCL/6-18, TRF, and YSR, 1–9. University of Vermont.
- Alfieri, T., D. N. Ruble, and E. T. Higgins. 1996. “Gender Stereotypes During Adolescence: Developmental Changes and the Transition to Junior High School.” Developmental Psychology 32, no. 6: 1129–1137. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.32.6.1129.
- Archer, J. 2004. “Sex Differences in Aggression in Real-World Settings: A Meta-Analytic Review.” Review of General Psychology 8, no. 4: 291–322. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.8.4.291.
- Archer, J., and S. M. Coyne. 2005. “An Integrated Review of Indirect, Relational, and Social Aggression.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 9, no. 3: 212–230. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0903_2.
- Augsburger, M., K. Basler, and A. Maercker. 2019. “Is There a Female Cycle of Violence after Exposure to Childhood Maltreatment? A Meta-Analysis.” Psychological Medicine 49, no. 11: 1776–1786. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291719000680.
- Baer, J. C., and C. D. Martinez. 2006. “Child Maltreatment and Insecure Attachment: A Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology 24, no. 3: 187–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646830600821231.
- Baker, E. R., C. J. Jensen, M. Moeyaert, and S. Bordoff. 2020. “Socioeconomic Status and Early Childhood Aggression: Moderation by Theory of Mind for Relational, But Not Physical, Aggression.” Early Child Development and Care 190, no. 8: 1187–1201. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2018.1524379.
- Barzilay, S., A. Brunstein Klomek, A. Apter, et al. 2017. “Bullying Victimization and Suicide Ideation and Behavior Among Adolescents in Europe: A 10-Country Study.” Journal of Adolescent Health 61, no. 2: 179–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.02.002.
- Benedini, K. M., A. A. Fagan, and C. L. Gibson. 2016. “The Cycle of Victimization: The Relationship Between Childhood Maltreatment and Adolescent PV.” Child Abuse & Neglect 59: 111–121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-023-01833-3.
- Benner, A. D., and S. Graham. 2009. “The Transition to High School as a Developmental Process Among Multiethnic Urban Youth.” Child Development 80, no. 2: 356–376. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01265.x.
- Bernstein, D. P., J. A. Stein, M. D. Newcomb, et al. 2003. “Development and Validation of a Brief Screening Version of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire.” Child Abuse & Neglect 27, no. 2: 169–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00541-0.
- Bonanno, G. A., and A. D. Mancini. 2012. “Beyond Resilience and PTSD: Mapping the Heterogeneity of Responses to Potential Trauma.” Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy 4, no. 1: 74–83. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017829.
- Bowlby, J. 1979. “The Bowlby-Ainsworth Attachment Theory.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2, no. 4: 637–638.
- Branson, C. E., and D. G. Cornell. 2009. “A Comparison of Self and Peer Reports in the Assessment of Middle School Bullying.” Journal of Applied School Psychology 25, no. 1: 5–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377900802484133.
10.1080/15377900802484133 Google Scholar
- Cantor, P., D. Osher, J. Berg, L. Steyer, and T. Rose. 2021. “ Malleability, Plasticity, and Individuality: How Children Learn and Develop in Context 1.” In In The Science of Learning and Development, 3–54. Routledge.
10.4324/9781003038016 Google Scholar
- Casper, D. M., and N. A. Card. 2010. ““We Were Best Friends, But”: Two Studies of Antipathetic Relationships Emerging From Broken Friendships.” Journal of Adolescent Research 25, no. 4: 499–526. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558410366596.
- Casper, D. M., and N. A. Card. 2017. “Overt and Relational Victimization: A Meta-Analytic Review of Their Overlap and Associations With Social–Psychological Adjustment.” Child Development 88, no. 2: 466–483. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12621.
- Casper, D. M., N. A. Card, S. Bauman, and R. B. Toomey. 2017. “Overt and Relational Aggression Participant Role Behavior: Measurement and Relations With Sociometric Status and Depression.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 27, no. 3: 661–673. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12306.
- Chai, X., and D. Lin. 2021. “School Transition During Adolescence: Turning Crisis Into Opportunity.” Advances in Psychological Science 29, no. 5: 864–874. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1042.2021.00864.
10.3724/SP.J.1042.2021.00864 Google Scholar
- Chen, L., W. Zhang, L. Ji, and K. Deater-Deckard. 2019. “Developmental Trajectories of Chinese Adolescents’ Relational Aggression: Associations With Changes in Social-Psychological Adjustment.” Child Development 90, no. 6: 2153–2170. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13090.
- Chen, X., J. Shao, X. Pu, and Z. Wang. 2023. “Childhood Maltreatment and Adolescents’ Peer Victimization: The Effect of Security, School Connectedness and Gender.” Children and Youth Services Review 148: 106843. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.106843.
- Cicchetti, D. 2016. “Socioemotional, Personality, and Biological Development: Illustrations From a Multilevel Developmental Psychopathology Perspective on Child Maltreatment.” Annual Review of Psychology 67: 187–211. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033259.
- Connor, D. F. 2002. Aggression and Antisocial Behavior in Children and Adolescents: Research and Treatment. The Guilford Press.
- Crick, N. R., and M. A. Bigbee. 1998. “Relational and Overt Forms of Peer Victimization: A Multiinformant Approach.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 66, no. 2: 337–347. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.66.2.337.
- Crick, N. R., and J. K. Grotpeter. 1995. “Relational Aggression, Gender, and Social-Psychological Adjustment.” Child Development 66, no. 3: 710–722. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00900.x.
- Downey, G., S. Feldman, J. Khuri, and S. Friedman. 1994. “Maltreatment and Childhood Depression.” Handbook of Depression in Children and Adolescents: 481–508. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-1510-8_22.
10.1007/978-1-4899-1510-8_22 Google Scholar
- Duineveld, J. J., P. D. Parker, R. M. Ryan, J. Ciarrochi, and K. Salmela-Aro. 2017. “The Link between Perceived Maternal and Paternal Autonomy Support and Adolescent Well-Being Across Three Major Educational Transitions.” Developmental Psychology 53, no. 10: 1978–1994. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000364.
- Dykas, M. J., and J. C. Cassidy. 2011. “Attachment and the Processing of Social Information Across the Life Span: Theory and Evidence.” Psychological Bulletin 137, no. 1: 19–46. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021367.
- Eccles, J. S., and R. W. Roeser. 2011. “Schools as Developmental Contexts During Adolescence.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 21, no. 1: 225–241. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00725.x.
- E. Goldstein, S., and P. Boxer. 2013. “Parenting Practices and the Early Socialisation of Relational Aggression Among Preschoolers.” Early Child Development and Care 183, no. 11: 1559–1575. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2012.738200.
10.1080/03004430.2012.738200 Google Scholar
- Elder, G. H., and M. J. Shanahan. 2007. “ The Life Course and Human Development.” In Handbook of Child Psychology, edited by W. Damon and R. M. Lerner, 1, 6th ed, 665–715. John Wiley & Sons Inc.
10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0112 Google Scholar
- Ettekal, I., and G. W. Ladd. 2017. “Developmental Continuity and Change In Physical, Verbal, and Relational Aggression and Peer Victimization From Childhood to Adolescence.” Developmental Psychology 53, no. 9: 1709–1721. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000357.
- Farah, M. J., D. M. Shera, J. H. Savage, et al. 2006. “Childhood Poverty: Specific Associations With Neurocognitive Development.” Brain Research 1110, no. 1: 166–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2006.06.072.
- Fatima, S., and H. Sheikh. 2014. “Socioeconomic Status and Adolescent Aggression: The Role of Executive Functioning as a Mediator.” American Journal of Psychology 127, no. 4: 419–430. https://doi.org/10.5406/amerjpsyc.127.4.0419.
- Finkelhor, D. 2007. “Developmental Victimology.” Victims of crime 3: 9–34.
- Finkelhor, D., H. Turner, A. Shattuck, S. Hamby, and K. Kracke (2015). Children's Exposure to Violence, Crime, and Abuse: An Update.
- Finnegan, R. A., E. V. E. Hodges, and D. G. Perry. 1996. “Preoccupied and Avoidant Coping during Middle Childhood.” Child Development 67, no. 4: 1318–1328. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01798.x.
- Forbes, M. K., S. Fitzpatrick, N. R. Magson, and R. M. Rapee. 2019. “Depression, Anxiety, and Peer Victimization: Bidirectional Relationships and Associated Outcomes Transitioning from Childhood to Adolescence.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 48, no. 4: 692–702. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0922-6.
- Goemans, A., E. Viding, and E. McCrory. 2023. “Child Maltreatment, Peer Victimization, and Mental Health: Neurocognitive Perspectives on the Cycle of Victimization.” Trauma, Violence & Abuse 24, no. 2: 530–548. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380211036393.
- Grimm, K. J., N. Ram, and R. Estabrook. 2017. Growth Modeling: Structural Equation and Multilevel Modeling Approaches. Guilford Publications.
- Guo, H., L. Chen, Z. Ye, J. Pan, and D. Lin. 2017. “Characteristics of PV and the Bidirectional Relationship Between PV and Internalizing Problems Among Rural-to-Urban Migrant Children in China: A Longitudinal Study.” Acta Psychologica Sinica 49, no. 3: 336–348. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1041.2017.00336.
10.3724/SP.J.1041.2017.00336 Google Scholar
- Hackman, D. A., and M. J. Farah. 2009. “Socioeconomic Status and the Developing Brain.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 13, no. 2: 65–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2008.11.003.
- Hershberger, M. A., and M. H. Jones. 2018. “The Influence of Social Relationships and School Engagement on Academic Achievement In Maltreated Adolescents.” Journal of Adolescence 67: 98–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.06.003.
- Holtz, C. A., R. A. Fox, and J. R. Meurer. 2015. “Incidence of Behavior Problems in Toddlers and Preschool Children from Families Living in Poverty.” The Journal of Psychology 149, no. 2: 161–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2013.853020.
- Ji, L. Q., L. Chen, F. Z. Xu, S. Y. Zhao, and W. X. Zhang. 2011. “A Longitudinai Analysis of the Association Between PV and Patterns of Psychosocial Adjustment During Middie and Late Chiidhood.” Acta Psychologica Sinica 43, no. 10: 1151–1162.
- Juvonen, J., and S. Graham. 2014. “Bullying In Schools: The Power of Bullies and the Plight of Victims.” Annual Review of Psychology 65: 159–185. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115030.
- Karriker-Jaffe, K. J., V. A. Foshee, S. T. Ennett, and C. Suchindran. 2008. “The Development of Aggression During Adolescence: Sex Differences In Trajectories of Physical and Social Aggression Among Youth in Rural Areas.” Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 36, no. 8: 1227–1236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9245-5.
- Kawabata, Y., N. R. Crick, and Y. Hamaguchi. 2010a. “Forms of Aggression, Social-Psychological Adjustment, and PV In a Japanese Sample: The Moderating Role of Positive and Negative Friendship Quality.” Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 38: 471–484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9386-1.
- Kawabata, Y., N. R. Crick, and Y. Hamaguchi. 2010b. “The Role of Culture In Relational Aggression: Associations With Social-Psychological Adjustment Problems in Japanese and US School-Aged Children.” International Journal of Behavioral Development 34, no. 4: 354–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025409339151.
- Kim, J., and D. Cicchetti. 2010. “Longitudinal Pathways Linking Child Maltreatment, Emotion Regulation, Peer Relations, and Psychopathology.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 51, no. 6: 706–716. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02202.x.
- Lansford, J. E., A. T. Skinner, E. Sorbring, et al. 2012. “Boys’ and Girls’ Relational and Physical Aggression in Nine Countries.” Aggressive Behavior 38, no. 4: 298–308. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21433.
- Leadbeater, B. J., K. Thompson, and P. Sukhawathanakul. 2014. “It Gets Better or Does It? Peer Victimization and Internalizing Problems in the Transition to Young Adulthood.” Development and Psychopathology 26, no. 3: 675–688. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579414000315.
- Lereya, S. T., M. Samara, and D. Wolke. 2013. “Parenting Behavior and the Risk of Becoming a Victim and a Bully/Victim: A Meta-Analysis Study.” Child Abuse & Neglect 37, no. 12: 1091–1108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.03.001.
- Liang, C., J. Liu, Y. Gao, and X. Liu. 2023. “Developmental Pathway from Childhood Abuse to Adolescent Peer Victimization: The Role of Rejection Sensitivity and Aggression.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 52, no. 11: 2370–2383. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-023-01833-3.
- Liao, Y., J. Chen, Y. Zhang, and C. Peng. 2022. “The Reciprocal Relationship between PV and Internalizing Problems in Children and Adolescents: A Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies.” Acta Psychologica Sinica 54, no. 7: 828–849. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1041.2022.00828.
- Long, Y., H. Zhou, and Y. Li. 2020. “Relational Victimization and Internalizing Problems: Moderation of Popularity and Mediation of Popularity Status Insecurity.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 49, no. 3: 724–734. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01177-x.
- Luk, J. W., J. Wang, and B. G. Simons-Morton. 2012. “The Co-Occurrence of Substance Use and Bullying Behaviors Among us Adolescents: Understanding Demographic Characteristics and Social Influences.” Journal of Adolescence 35, no. 5: 1351–1360.
- Martin, M. J., R. D. Conger, T. J. Schofield, et al. 2010. “Evaluation of the Interactionist Model of Socioeconomic Status and Problem Behavior: A Developmental Cascade Across Generations.” Development and Psychopathology 22, no. 3: 695–713. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579410000374.
- Mays, A. 2012. “Determinanten Traditionell-Sexistischer Einstellungen in Deutschland – Eine Analyze Mit Allbus-Daten.” Kölner Zeitschrift Für Soziologie Und Sozialpsychologie (KZfSS) 64, no. 2: 277–302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11577-012-0165-6.
10.1007/s11577-012-0165-6 Google Scholar
- Mynard, H., and S. Joseph. 2000. “Development of the Multidimensional Peer-Victimization Scale.” Aggressive Behavior 26, no. 2: 169–178. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(2000)26:2<169::AID-AB3>3.0.CO;2-A.
- Noller, P., and V. Callan. 2015. The Adolescent in the Family. Routledge.
10.4324/9781315667836 Google Scholar
- Ostrov, J. M., and S. A. Godleski. 2010. “Toward an Integrated Gender-Linked Model of Aggression Subtypes in Early and Middle Childhood.” Psychological Review 117, no. 1: 233–242. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018070.
- Pellegrini, A. 2008. “The Roles of Aggressive and Affiliative Behaviors In Resource Control: A Behavioral Ecological Perspective.” Developmental Review 28, no. 4: 461–487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2008.03.001.
- Pellegrini, A. D., and J. D. Long. 2002. “A Longitudinal Study of Bullying, Dominance, and Victimization during the Transition From Primary School through Secondary School.” British Journal of Developmental Psychology 20, no. 2: 259–280. https://doi.org/10.1348/026151002166442.
- Reijntjes, A., J. H. Kamphuis, P. Prinzie, and M. J. Telch. 2010. “Peer Victimization and Internalizing Problems In Children: a Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies.” Child Abuse & Neglect 34, no. 4: 244–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.07.009.
- Ren, C. 2010. “Measurement Methodology on Social Economic Status Index of Students.” Journal of Educational Studies 6, no. 05: 77–82. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-1298.2010.05.012.
10.3969/j.issn.1673-1298.2010.05.012 Google Scholar
- Stoddard, F. J. 2014. “Outcomes of Traumatic Exposure.” Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 23, no. 2: 243–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2014.01.004.
- Widom, C. S. 2014. “ Longterm Consequences of Child Maltreatment.” In Handbook of Child Maltreatment, 225–247. Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7208-3_12.
10.1007/978-94-007-7208-3_12 Google Scholar
- Wu, L., D. Zhang, Z. Su, and T. Hu. 2015. “Peer Victimization Among Children and Adolescents: A Meta-Analytic Review of Links to Emotional Maladjustment.” Clinical Pediatrics 54, no. 10: 941–955. https://doi.org/10.1177/0009922814567873.
- Xiao, J., Z. Shen, X. Li, and D. Lin. 2023. “Peer Victimization Trajectories and Their Relationships With Depressive Symptoms and Externalizing Problems: Risk Enhancement or Risk Susceptibility.” Acta Psychologica Sinica 55, no. 06: 978. https://www.zhangqiaokeyan.com/academic-journal-cn_detail_thesis/02012101303427.html.
10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.00978 Google Scholar
- Yang, X. X., L. Chen, Y. S. Cao, X. W. Bi, G. H. Chen, and W. X. Zhang. 2020. “PV During Early Adolescence: Person Centered Analysis.” Psychological Development and Education 36, no. 2: 146–156. https://doi.org/10.16187/j.cnki.issn1001-4918.2020.02.03.
10.16187/j.cnki.issn1001-4918.2020.02.03 Google Scholar
- Zhang, H. M. (2023). Association of Child Maltreatment and Bullying Victimization among Primary and Middle School Students: The Mediating Role of Family Function, Resilience, and Anxiety.
- Zhang, M. D., H. D. Maternal, C. H. Hospital, and B. City (2011). Reliability and Validity of the Chinese Version of CTQ-SF. http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTAL-ZGGW201105073.htm.
- Zhang, Y. P., (2009). Characteristics of Relational Aggression Victims’ Coping-Style and Its Intervention in Secondary Vocational School.
- Zhou, H., and L. R. Long. 2004. “Statistical Remedies for Common Method Biases.” Advances in Psychological Science 06: 942–950. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1671-3710.2004.06.018.
10.3969/j.issn.1671-3710.2004.06.018 Google Scholar
