4.1.1 Tiger hunting for entertainment, soldier training, and official selection

Hunting has been an integral part of human culture since the early days of our species. In prehistoric times, people hunted wild animals for safety and sustenance, with tigers among the targets. As societies and economies developed, tiger hunting evolved beyond necessity into a form of entertainment, a means for soldier training, and a method for selecting martial officials. The fierceness and difficulty in capturing tigers made them ideal for these purposes. Capturing and killing tigers became a recruitment test for soldiers and officials. With advancements in science and technology, hunting tools improved, making tiger hunts easier and less risky. These developments increased the number of hunts and significantly impacted tiger populations.

In the ancient Chinese chronicle Zuo Zhuan 左传 (1999), different seasonal hunting activities are mentioned as follows: “Spring hunting (春蒐 chūn sōu) is to search for nonegg-laying and nonpregnant birds and animals; Summer hunting (夏苗 xià miáo) targets birds and animals that harm crops. Autumn hunting (秋狝 qiū xiǎn) is conducted in harmony with the autumn atmosphere of solemnity. Winter Hunting (冬狩 dōng shòu) refers to hunting various birds and animals that are fully grown and can be indiscriminately encircled and hunted. All of these activities took place during the agricultural downtime” (Zuo Zhuan, 718 bce). These descriptions demonstrate that people at that time were aware of ecological processes in their hunting activities, including an explicit mention of human–wildlife conflicts in the form of crop raiding. It also indicates that organized hunting activities had a military exercise nature, serving not only as a means of hunting but also as training exercises. These activities, especially among emperors or tribal leaders, were designed to reduce fear and promote quick decision-making during sudden, uncontrolled attacks by enemies.

King Wu of the Zhou Dynasty (11th century bce) was deemed a “tiger-hunting hero.” According to records, King Wu hunted 22 tigers and many other animals (Yi Zhou Shu 逸周书, 1999). Later, King Mu of the Zhou Dynasty was also recorded to have hunted a tiger in Hulao Pass (also known as Tiger Cage Pass, named after this tiger hunting event) in Central China's Henan Province (Guo, 1989).

During the sixth to fifth century bce, King Zhuang of Chu State sought talented individuals through hunting, with tigers as one of the targeted animals. He proclaimed that if someone could kill tigers and leopards with hazelwood, they were brave; if someone could wrestle with rhinoceroses bare-handed, they were strong; and if, after the hunt, someone could fairly distribute the spoils to everyone, they were virtuous. By employing this method, King Zhuang successfully recruited various talents (Yuanjun, 1979).

Some dynasties founded by nomadic tribes, such as the Khitan-led Liao Dynasty (90–1125 ce) and the Jurchen-led Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 ce) in northeast China, excelled at hunting. Their rulers preserved the tradition of hunting as a means to demonstrate their martial spirit. It is recorded that Emperor Xingzong of Liao encountered three tigers during a hunting expedition and captured them with his dogs in 1024 ce (Tuotuo, 1974). Similarly, Emperor Zhangzong of Jin shot a tiger with a bow and arrows while hunting in the Qiu mountains (Tuotuo, 1975).

In the Qing Dynasty, tiger hunting served as a way for emperors to train and cultivate military skills among the Eight Banners leaders and soldiers. Royal tiger hunting by the Qing emperors was an activity carried out to display their martial prowess and heroic demeanor. One of the most notable emperors known for tiger hunting was Emperor Kangxi (康熙). During Emperor Kangxi's journey to Shengjing (present-day Mukden or Shengyang) in his 20th year (1681 ce), he hunted multiple tigers he encountered along the way. According to incomplete statistics, Emperor Kangxi personally hunted and killed approximately 135 Amur tigers in the northeastern region between 1662 and 1719 ce (Shizun, 2005), which was a huge number for that era.

In early modern times, Westerners also participated in tiger hunting in China's Xinjiang region. For example, in 1885, Russian military explorer Nikolay Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (Никола́й Миха́йлович Пржева́льский) visited Lop Nor for the second time and documented the local hunting customs of the Lop people, including various methods of tiger hunting. During his stay in the village of New Abu Dar, he participated in multiple local tiger hunting activities and once witnessed a tiger “running away without any injuries” (Przhevalsky, 1879, Chinese translation 1999).

4.1.2 Mild HTCs: Tiger attack and tiger killing due to occasional encounters

Encounters between humans and tigers were generally rare in China, mostly due to differences in habitat preferences. However, such encounters did occur when a tiger entered human-inhabited areas, causing disturbances to people's lives and resulting in mild forms of HTC. For example, in 1363, during the Yuan Dynasty, a tiger entered the downtown area of Lianjiang County. The following year, a tiger was captured in Fuzhou Prefecture, and in 1511, during the Ming Dynasty, a tiger unexpectedly climbed onto residents' houses and was shot by an official with a bow and arrows in the same prefecture (Jingxi et al., 1751).

Conversely, when people occasionally passed through forests or entered forested areas for production activities, encounters with tigers also led to HTCs. For example, in 1193, during the Southern Song Dynasty, a female villager was collecting bamboo shoots when she was attacked and eaten by a tiger on Shigu Mountain in Gutian County, Fujian (Mai, 2006). Another person named Lin Detai killed a tiger when he encountered one passing through a forest before the year 1496 during the Ming Dynasty in Yongchun County (Qiaosong et al., 1927).

4.1.3 Intense HTCs: Violent tiger attacks and tiger killing due to habitat overlap

As human agricultural and industrial activities developed and populations expanded into China's mountainous regions, where tigers and their habitats were more prevalent, the overlap of human and tiger habitats increased. This overlap intensified competition for land and resources, compressing the tigers' habitats and leading to more frequent and intense HTCs. These conflicts became especially pronounced during the later periods of China's history, from the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1912 ce) onward.

Southern Shaanxi (including the cities of Hanzhong, Ankang, and Shangluo) is a vast mountainous region that transitions from the northern subtropical zone to the warm temperate zone. It is bordered by the Qinling Mountains in the north (with an average altitude of approximately 2000–3500 m) and the Bashan Mountains in the south (with an average altitude of approximately 2000–2500 m). This region, characterized by dense forests and numerous rivers, serves as the transitional zone between northern and southern China. The mild and humid climate provides excellent natural conditions for the survival of various animals, including tigers.

Southern Shaanxi's unique natural environment and abundant resources have historically attracted people seeking land for expansion or refuge from wars. The development of Southern Shaanxi can be categorized into five stages (Liangxue, 1998). Before the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 ad), the development activities were primarily limited to basic crop cultivation in river valleys, basins, and low mountainous areas by local indigenous residents. The activities were sporadic and limited in breadth and depth, with minimal impact on the local ecological environment. Under such development conditions, the habitat of tigers remained relatively undisturbed, tiger numbers were relatively abundant, and HTCs only occurred occasionally.

During the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1912 ce), Southern Shaanxi became one of the core areas for both official and unofficial migration, with Hubei, Hunan, Fujian, and Guangdong as the main sources of immigrants. This influx led to extensive land reclamation and profound changes in the region's mode of production. The immigrants engaged in agricultural cultivation and participated in industries such as coal mining, gold mining, charcoal burning, papermaking, and tea production. They gradually expanded their activities from the river valleys and plains to the low hills, then to the middle mountains, and finally to the high mountains and gorges. For decades, forests were cleared and burned, and the landscape of mountains and rivers was significantly altered (Zhiyi, 1842). This intensive development led to severe environmental changes and the destruction and loss of tiger habitats.

In the 55 gazetteers of Southern Shaanxi, two tablet inscriptions, as well as four related series and anthologies, a total of 83 tiger records were collected. Among these, 74 were from the Ming and Qing periods, and nine were traced back to previous dynasties. Of the 74 records, 31 were related to HTCs, including 11 mild conflicts and 20 intense ones. According to these records, tiger attacks occurred quite frequently during the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty and the mid-Qing Dynasty, mainly coinciding with peak periods of local development. In addition, there were instances where tigers appeared in groups to attack local people, extending their attacking range and causing severe injuries that threatened the daily lives of residents. Therefore, government officials began to offer substantial rewards for tiger hunting/killing. Of the 31 HTC records, 15 provided detailed descriptions, and nine involved government-organized tiger hunting efforts. Such hunting efforts were the main approach to preventing tiger attacks and mitigating the threat posed by tigers to local communities.

Tiger attacks were particularly severe in the mountainous areas of Xixiang County. During the Wanli reign (1573–1620) of the Ming Dynasty, a group of tigers began by preying on cattle and sheep in open land, then targeted pigs and dogs in villages, and eventually escalated to attacking and injuring people both day and night. Later, in 1712, during the Qing Dynasty, the tiger menace resurfaced, surpassing all previous instances. This time, tigers not only roamed the outskirts but also entered the city at midnight, harming people and causing livestock losses (Bingran, 1813).

In response, Prefect Wang Mu organized government-led tiger hunts, offering a reward of 100 strings of money for each tiger killed to the professional tiger hunters recruited for the task. These professional hunters were familiar with the tigers' paths and various tiger-hunting tools, including bows and arrows, hidden arrows, and spears. Their efforts proved successful, as it was recorded that “From 1713 to 1715, 64 tigers were killed and others were wounded as well” (Tinghuai, 1828).

Compared to individual tiger hunting, these government-led tiger eradication efforts were more effective in addressing the immediate threat posed by tigers and resulted in a rapid decline in the local tiger population. For example, numerous records indicate that “tiger attacks happened quite often during the Qianlong Emperor's reign (1736–1795). However, it is rare to see any tiger recently (1926) due to the cultivated wasteland expansion” (Zhonghuang, 1926).

4.1.4 Indirect negative interactions: Tiger habitat loss due to modernization and industrialization

The Amur tiger, which occurs in Northeast China, the Russian Far East, and the Korean Peninsula, has historically coexisted with humans since the Paleolithic Age. This area, which includes the Chinese provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning, covers an area of approximately one million square kilometers. It features high mountains, dense virgin forests, abundant rainfall, and rich biodiversity, providing an excellent habitat for the Amur tigers (Excavation Team of Gezidong Site, 1975; Guoqin, 1989; Jiang, 1975, 1982; Jianzhong et al., 1981; Joint Jin-Niu-Shan Excavation Team, 1976; Chinese Archaeology Society, 1997a, 1997b; Xinxue et al., 1984; Xueshi & Guanfu, 1973; Zhenhong, 1981; Zhenhong et al., 1980; Zhenhong et al., 1985; Zhuowei et al., 2003; Zhuchen, 1947).

During ancient times, Northeast China was mostly inhabited by minority ethnic groups with nomadic lifestyles centered around hunting and gathering. Occasionally, agricultural regimes took control of these areas, but continuous agricultural production was not implemented. Thus, before the mid-19th century, except for some forest loss in the western and southern parts of Liaoning Province and the middle and lower reaches of the Yalu River, most of the region was still covered by dense virgin forests, with the overall forest coverage rate exceeding 70% (Zhongwen et al., 2009). As the birthplace of the Qing rulers, the northeast region was protected as a preserved area through a policy of isolation that forbade people from different areas from moving in for farming or hunting. This policy helped maintain the integrity of the forests and the wildlife they supported. In the early years of the Qianlong reign (1735–1795), it was recorded that tigers were found “in all the mountains of the Northeast” (Qinding Shengjing Tongzhi, 1965).

The modernization of Northeast China began in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, influenced by Russia and Japan. In 1860, Imperial Russia forced the Qing government to sign the Sino-Russian Treaty of Beijing, which marked the intervention and influence of external powers in the region, driving the subsequent modernization process. In 1898, Russia leased the territories of Port Arthur and Dalian from China and began constructing ports and railroads. In 1897, Russia began the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway, which traversed the most densely forested areas of Northeast China. Russian settlements and logging operations were established along the railway line, extensively exploiting China's forestry resources. “By 1915, there were 22 Russian forest stations along the Chinese Eastern Railway, occupying an area of approximately 19,700,000 hectares” (Zhongwen et al., 2009). The primary function of the Chinese Eastern Railway was initially to transport timber, serving as a major transportation route for Russia's exploitation of Northeast China's forest resources. After the depletion of timber resources along the Chinese Eastern Railway, Russia built the South Manchuria Railway and dozens of forest railways, intensifying this exploitation of China's forest resources.

In 1905, following Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War, it acquired Russian interests in Northeast China through the Treaty of Portsmouth. Japan began promoting modernization and colonial rule in the region, developing industries, mining, and transportation infrastructure while engaging in the exploitative industrial development of its coal, iron, timber, and other natural resources. After 1931, Japan occupied Northeast China, established the puppet state of Manchukuo, and intensified colonial rule. Japan felled large amounts of timber for military installations and transported significant quantities of high-quality timber back to Japan. During Japan's colonial rule in Northeast China (1931–1945), approximately 100 million cubic meters of timber were plundered and transported to Japan (Zhongwen et al., 2009).

The Russian and Japanese indiscriminately exploited and deforested Northeast China, causing irreversible damage to its forests. Mountainous regions were severely fragmented, threatening tigers' survival in the region. By the early 20th century, the presence of Amur tigers in Liaoning Province had already become scarce. It is recorded that “the tiger is rarely seen” (Xijue & Mingshu, 1930), suggesting a significant decline in the Amur tiger population (Yu et al., 2009).

4.1.5 Usage of tiger parts in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM)

In TCM, almost every part of the tiger's body is believed to have unique medicinal properties. These parts include tiger bones, fat, meat, blood, stomach, gallbladder, kidney, skin, eyes, whiskers, brain, claws, teeth, nose, feces, and tail, all of which are used as medicinal ingredients with different therapeutic effects. For example, historically, it was believed that a tiger's tail could treat various skin diseases, tiger bile could treat children's spasms, tiger whiskers could relieve headaches, and tiger brain could treat laziness and acne (Shenwei, 1108; Shen, n.d.). Among the tigers' organs and body parts, bones were considered to have the highest medicinal value.

The use of tiger bones as medicine can be traced back over 1000 years. According to the Shiliao Bencao食疗本草 (Materia Medica of Food Therapy, written in 713–741 ad), “Tiger bones: boil them into a bath decoction to dispel wind pain, toxins, and swelling due to bone-joint disorders. Soak them in vinegar and apply to the knees to alleviate foot pain and swelling. The shinbone is the most effective. The decoction can also be used for bathing newborns, expelling evil qi (vital energy), treating ulcers, scabies, epilepsy, demonic possession, and ensuring healthy growth.” Therefore, “The hunter is likely to get it (tiger) and sell it at the highest market price. Its skin can be used as a mattress, and its bones can be made into medicinal wine, which is most effective in treating back and leg pain and other ailments” (Weiqing et al., 1935).

In the Zhonghua Yidian 中 华 医 典 (5th edition) (a large-scale electronic compendium of ancient Chinese medical texts), there are 2996 pieces of medicinal information about tiger products and 2884 prescriptions involving tiger parts. Through comprehensive analysis, we found that the earliest recorded literature on the medicinal value of tiger products in China can be traced back to the pharmacological work Mingyi Bielu 名医别录 (Records of Famous Physicians) from the end of the Han Dynasty (Before 220 ce [Figure 1]). By the Han Dynasty, people already had a basic understanding of the medicinal value and therapeutic uses of certain tiger parts. According to the available literature, the use of tiger-based prescriptions first appeared during the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 ce) and no later than the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317–420 ce). The number of prescriptions increased rapidly during the Jin 晋 (265–420 ce), Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–589 ce), and Tang Dynasty (618–907 ce), and reached its first peak in the Song Dynasty (960–1279 ce). During the Jin 金 (1115–1234 ce) and Yuan Dynasties (1271–1368 ce), the number of prescriptions dropped significantly, but prescription numbers experienced another peak during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 ce), making it the period with the highest number of recorded tiger-base prescriptions in history. Although there was a slight decrease during the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 ce), the number of tiger-based prescriptions remained higher than that of the Song Dynasty. In the Republican era (1912–1949 ce), the number of tiger-based prescriptions decreased to a level nearly equivalent to that of the Tang Dynasty. Traditional Chinese medicine's utilization of tiger products for over 2000 years has been based on the hunting and killing of tigers, actions which undoubtedly have had a very negative impact on tiger populations.

4.1.6 Tiger trade and hunting

Tigers, as a resource with multiple utilitarian values, have been highly regarded throughout history due to their uniqueness and scarcity. Thus, interest in tigers and their parts has been common among ordinary people, the nobility, and elite rulers alike in tiger-range countries. This widespread fascination led to tigers and tiger parts becoming trade commodities.

In ancient times, when the commodity economy was not well developed, tiger trade was uncommon, and tiger products were mostly used as tributes, gifts, or for simple barter. Tiger skin was likely one of the earliest tiger products traded. Its stunning appearance, warmth, fine and thick fur, large size, and unique colors and patterns made it highly sought after for clothing, carpets, and decorations, signifying the prestige of the owners. Some rulers and upper-class individuals were willing to purchase tiger and leopard skins at high prices to display their privileged status.

Tiger skin was also used as tribute from minority ethnic tribes to China's central government to seek rewards or protection. In 49 ce, it was recorded that the Wuhuan leader led a crowd to submit and pay tribute to the Eastern Han Dynasty, presenting tiger and leopard skins along with slaves, cows, horses, and bows. The Han emperor ordered a grand feast and bestowed precious treasures on Wuhuan as a reward (Ye, 1959). Such a tributary relationship was a form of trade involving the reciprocal exchange of valuable local products.

With the development of the commodity economy, tiger products began to circulate as commodities. For some ethnic groups in remote areas with low economic development, tiger skins served as an intermediary currency in the commodity trade. For example, during the Southern Qi Dynasty (479–502 ce), the Qiang tribe did not produce any metallic currency. Instead, tiger skins, being rare and precious, were highly valued and used as intermediaries for trade (Zixian, 1972).

Earlier, we described the demand for tiger products in traditional medicine (Figure 1). Due to their high demand in TCM, tiger bones became the most widely circulated tiger product. The tiger bone trade appeared as early as the Han Dynasty and became commodified during the Tang and Song dynasties. During the Yuan Dynasty, tax rates were imposed on tiger products, and during the Ming and Qing periods, tiger skins, bones, and other products circulated locally. For example, it is recorded that in 1537, during the Ming Dynasty, a tiger skin was valued at three silver coins (Luo, 1443). The Lop Nor people in Xinjiang hunted and sold the skins and bones of Tarim tigers, marketing them locally as well. During the Guangxu period, merchants from Shanxi, Shaanxi, and Gansu collected tiger bones and skins, which were then transported by land into Xinjiang province or sold to Qitai County towns (Changjixian Xiangtu Tuzhi, 1908). Sven Hedin once purchased two tiger skins in Xinjiang Lop Nor (Hedin, 1940).

The commodity economy of Northeast China began in early modern times, leading to the gradual commercialization of tiger products and the formation of a tiger product trade market. Hunters went into the mountains specifically to hunt tigers for profit. During the Guangxu reign of the Qing Dynasty, Sanxing County in Heilongjiang Province (now Yilan County) levied taxes based on the units of tiger bones and tiger skins (Guangxu Sanxing Xianzhi, 1890). During the Republican period, a large number of tiger products were marketed, even reaching international markets. In 1913 alone, 28 tigers were captured for their skins in Tongyuan County. These tiger skins were not for local consumption but were sent from Harbin to Beijing and Tianjin and then sold to agents of European stores (Chinese Eastern Railway Company, 1933). According to a 1927 record, the annual sales of tiger bone glue, a traditional Chinese medicine made by boiling and extracting gelatin from tiger bones, in Fengtian Province (now Liaoning Province), reached 355 kg (Shunan et al., 1934), indicating a significant market demand for tiger bone at that time.

4.2.1 Animal protection perceptions and tiger worship in China's history

Despite HTCs and the hunting and persecution of tigers, ancient China also had a culture of tiger worship and a concept of legal animal protection. These concepts and laws influenced tiger protection to varying extents at different times and in different regions.

The concept of coexistence between humans and animals was present in ancient China. In the Zhuangzi 庄子 (a compilation of Classical Philosophical Daoism of Zhuangzi and his followers), it is stated: “Heaven and earth were born alongside me, and the 10,000 things and I are one” (Zhuangzi). This reflects the ancient Chinese conception of “promoting harmony between humanity and nature” (天人合一). Influenced by this belief, there has been a long-standing tradition of protecting animals throughout Chinese history despite the conflicts between humans and animals. The Yi Zhou Shu 逸周书 mentions that “In the mountains, trees are not felled out of season to promote their growth; in rivers and lakes, nets are not cast out of season to promote the growth of fish and turtles. Birds' eggs and young animals are not taken, allowing the growth of birds and beasts. Hunting has its seasons, and no young sheep or pregnant sheep are killed. Calves do not pull carts, and colts do not run wild. The land retains its suitability, all things retain their innate characteristics, and the world follows its proper seasons.” This emphasizes the importance of “protecting and utilizing natural resources in season” (以时禁发) and protecting animals to maintain biodiversity. This regulation, issued in the 10th century bce (from the record of Yi Zhou Shu, which is a compendium of Chinese historical documents about the Western Zhou period, ~1046–771 bce), is regarded as one of the earliest forms of animal protection legislation.

During the Western Zhou Dynasty in the 11th century bce, an environmental protection decree called Fachongling 伐崇令 was issued, which stated that animals should not be harmed. Violation of this prohibition was met with severe punishment, including the death penalty (Juanli & Jiang, 2020). By the time of the Qin and Han Dynasties (221 bce–220 ce), the Chinese people had already recognized the contradiction between infinite human demands on nature and limited the regeneration capacity of natural resources. Consequently, more secure and detailed animal protection regulations were formulated, specifying which animal species could be hunted and the permissible times for hunting. Violations of these regulations were met with a variety of punishments.

In ancient China, HTCs were unavoidable due to the pressures of survival and the demands of rulers and emperors. In most cases, the management goal was to keep the intensity of these conflicts at tolerable levels for both people and wildlife. Hence, besides hunting and killing, there were other ways to resolve conflicts between humans and tigers.

One such approach was using virtuous governance to subdue tigers, derived from the culture of tiger worship. From prehistoric times, tigers were regarded as a symbol of authority and bravery, as evidenced by tiger totems from 4000 to 3000 bce (Xuefei, 2018). From the Zhou Dynasty in the 11th century bce, tigers were worshiped as one of the eight agriculture gods due to their ability to prey on wild boars (Qizhi, 2008). As the king of animals, tigers were believed to confront challenges and devour demons since the Han Dynasty of the first century (Liqi, 2010). Later, in the 10th and 11th centuries, Emperor Taizu of the Jin 金 Dynasty used a piece of tiger skin on his horse's back while hunting to symbolize his authority and bravery (Wenyin, 1986).

In ancient China, tigers were also regarded as divine and auspicious creatures, embodying the moral principles of punishing evil and promoting good. The government viewed the appearance of tigers as a judgment on their governance. When tiger disturbances or attacks occurred, officials and the public considered them warnings of poor governance. Therefore, the government would adopt benevolent or virtuous governance to stop these warnings and drive the tigers away. Officials would offer sacrifices and prayers to the Cheng Huang deity, regarded as the guardian god of the city, assisting local governance. Along with the sacrifices, they would write and recite tiger articles to request Cheng Huang's help in expelling the tigers. For instance, in 1666, following the tiger attacks in Qingshui County, Shi Runzhang, the local official, composed a tiger article appealing to Cheng Huang to expel the tigers (Yi & Sunyi, 1870). In northeast China, tigers were worshiped as local deities to prevent tiger attacks.

4.2.2 Tigers' increasing legal protection

In the mid-20th century, global concerns began to rise regarding declining tiger populations due to habitat loss and hunting. Efforts were initiated to address these issues through national legislation in several tiger range countries. In 1975, tigers were included in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This listing prohibited international trade in tiger parts and products and has played a crucial role in curbing illegal poaching and trafficking. The early 1990s witnessed significant international attention and initiatives for tiger conservation, culminating in the establishment of the Global Tiger Initiative (GTI) in 2008. In 2010, the tiger range countries participated in the St. Petersburg Tiger Summit, which aimed to improve tiger habitats, strengthen antipoaching efforts, and enhance international collaborations for tiger conservation.

In 1950, the Central People's Government of China announced the Methods for the Conservation of Rare Species 稀有生物保护方法, marking the official start of wildlife protection in the People's Republic of China. Subsequently, related policies and regulations on forest protection, land resource utilization, hunting regulations, and relevant laws involving animal protection at the national level were enacted successively. These measures provided stronger prerequisites for tiger protection.

In 1959, the Ministry of Forestry of the People's Republic of China issued the Directive on Proactive Implementation of Hunting Activities 关于积极开展狩猎活动的指示, which had a contradictory approach to tiger conservation. The third article of this directive designated the Amur tiger as a rare and precious animal, prohibiting indiscriminate killing to prevent extinction, except for capturing some individuals for scientific research, exchange, and captive breeding in parks. Paradoxically, the first article encouraged hunters to eliminate harmful birds and animals that posed a threat to humans, livestock, and agricultural and forestry crops, including tigers (especially the South China tiger), bears, leopards, and wolves. As a result, the South China Tiger was not afforded any protection under this directive. In September 1962, the State Council listed the Amur tiger in the animal protection list and established nature reserves through the Directive on Proactive Protection and Rational Utilization of Wildlife Resources 关于积极保护和合理利用野生动物资源的指示. In March 1977, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry designated the Amur tiger as a first-class protected animal at the national level and the South China tiger and Bengal tiger as second-class protected animals. In 1988, China promulgated the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of Wildlife 中华人民共和国野生动物保护法, which classified all subspecies of tigers as national first-class protected animals, strictly prohibiting illegal hunting. This legislation has significantly contributed to safeguarding and restoring tiger populations, as well as protecting their natural habitats. The law establishes the principles, responsibilities, legal liabilities, and management measures for the protection of wildlife and its habitats. It covers matters related to the conservation, utilization, transportation, trade, destruction, harm, rescue, and damage of wildlife.

4.2.3 Nature reserves and national park: Habitat protection for tigers

Ensuring sufficient living space and resources for tigers is an important measure to address HTCs and ensure tiger conservation. The establishment of nature reserves and national parks is an effective way to protect tiger habitats and plays a crucial role in their survival and reproduction. At present, there are seven tiger-relevant nature reserves established in the regions where the four subspecies occur or used to occur in China. For Amur tigers, there are two reserves: (1) Hunchun Amur Tiger Nature Reserve (the first national-level reserve for Amur tigers, established in 2001) and (2) Heilongjiang Laoyeling National Nature Reserve; for South China Tigers: (3) Jiangxi Yihuang Chinese Tiger Provincial Nature Reserve, (4) Jiangxi Le'an Yushan Laohunao Nature Reserve, and (5) Zhejiang Fengyangshan and Baishanzu Nature Reserve; for Indochinese Tigers: (6) Fujian Longyan Meihua Mountain Nature Reserve; and for Bengal Tigers (7) Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon National Nature Reserve.

In 2013, the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China proposed the establishment of a new national park system. In 2021, at the Leadership Summit of COP 15, Chinese President Xi Jinping announced the formal establishment of the first batch of five national parks, including the Northeast China Tiger and Leopard National Park. This park is located in the southern part of Laoyeling Mountain, at the junction of Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces (42°38′45″N to 44°18′36″N and 129°05′01″E to 131°18′52″E), covering an area of 1.4065 million hectares. It is the most populous, active, and important settlement and breeding area for tiger and leopard populations in Northeast China (National Forestry of China, 2017).

The establishment and improvement of nature reserves and national parks have led to the protection and restoration of tiger habitats, providing conditions for the return of the Amur tigers. In the 1970s, the population of Northeast Tigers was 151, but it sharply declined afterward. Since the establishment of the first Amur tiger nature reserve in 2001 and the subsequent establishment of the national park, the population of Amur tigers has shown some recovery (Figure 2).

4.2.4 Prohibition of the tiger medicine trade and scientific alternatives

Apart from HTC and the trade of tiger products, the medicinal use of tiger parts poses a significant threat to their survival. On May 29, 1993, the State Council of the People's Republic of China issued a notice titled “Prohibition of Rhinoceros Horn and Tiger Bone Trade,” which comprehensively banned the trade of rhinoceros horns and tiger bones. This notice prohibited the acquisition, utilization, import, and export of tiger bones and derived products. It also canceled the medicinal standards of tiger bones and removed them from the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Furthermore, the use of formulations containing tiger bones was prohibited. This policy put an end to China's 1000-year history of using tiger bones in medicine and halted the trade of tiger products, allowing tigers to live and reproduce. Since the ban, efforts have been made to develop artificial alternatives to tiger-based medicines.