Emulsions
Ulrike S. van der Schaaf,
Ulrike S. van der Schaaf
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Karlsruhe, Germany
Search for more papers by this authorUlrike S. van der Schaaf,
Ulrike S. van der Schaaf
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Karlsruhe, Germany
Search for more papers by this authorFirst published: 19 June 2017
Abstract
The article contains sections titled:
| 1. | General Features of Emulsions |
| 1.1. | Classification of Emulsions |
| 1.2. | Thermodynamical Considerations |
| 1.3. | Physical Properties of Emulsions |
| 2. | Preparation of Emulsions |
| 2.1. | Physico-chemical Emulsification Processes |
| 2.2. | Mechanical Emulsification Processes |
| 2.3. | Mechanical Emulsification Devices |
| 3. | Emulsifiers and Stabilizers |
| 3.1. | Classification of Emulsifiers and Stabilizers |
| 3.2. | Particles at Interfaces |
| 3.3. | Interfacial Tension and Viscoelastic Films |
| 3.4. | The Role of Emulsifiers in Droplet Breakup and Subsequent Stabilization |
| 3.5. | The Role of Stabilizers in Droplet Breakup and Subsequent Stabilization |
| 4. | Stability of Emulsions |
| 4.1. | Physical Stability |
| 4.2. | Chemical Stability |
| 4.3. | Microbiological Stability |
References
- 1 Alvarado, V. and Manrique, E. (2010) Enhanced oil recovery: An update review. Energies, 3, 1529–1575.
- 2 Asua, J.M. (2002) Miniemulsion polymerization. Progress in Polymer Science, 27, 1283–1346.
- 3 Fahr, A. and Liu, X. (2007) Drug delivery strategies for poorly water-soluble drugs. Expert Opinion on Drug Discovery, 4, 403–416.
- 4 Pouton, C.W. (1997) Formulation of self-emulsifying drug delivery systems. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 25, 47–58.
- 5 McClements, D.J., Decker, E.A., and Weiss, J. (2007) Emulsion-based delivery systems for lipophilic bioactive components. Journal of Food Science, 72, R109–R124.
- 6 Tominack, R.L. and Tominack, R. (2000) Herbicide formulations. Journal of Toxicology - Clinical Toxicology, 38, 129–135.
- 7 Mulqueen, P. (2003) Recent advances in agrochemical formulation. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 106, 83–107.
- 8 Morávková, T. and Stern, P. (2011) Rheological and textural properties of cosmetic emulsions. Applied Rheology, 21, 2–4.
- 9 Gilbert, L., Savary, G., Grisel, M., and Picard, C. (2013) Predicting sensory texture properties of cosmetic emulsions by physical measurements. Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems, 124, 21–31.
- 10 Tadros, T.F. (1992) Future developments in cosmetic formulations. International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 14, 93–111.
- 11 Dalgleish, D.G. (2006) Food emulsions — their structures and structure-forming properties. Food Hydrocolloids, 20, 415–422.
- 12
McClements, D.J. (2004) Food Emulsion: Principles, Practices, and Techniques, 2nd edn, CRC Press.
10.1201/9781420039436 Google Scholar
- 13 Chu, L.Y., Utada, A.S., Shah, R.K., Kim, J.W. et al. (2007) Controllable monodisperse multiple emulsions. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 46, 8970–8974.
- 14
Fernandez-Nieves, A., Wyss, H.M., Mattsson, J., and Weitz, D.A. (2011) Microgel Suspensions: Fundamentals and Applications, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, Germany.
10.1002/9783527632992 Google Scholar
- 15 Schmidt, U.S. and Schuchmann, H.P. (2015) Die Matrjoschka unter den Emulsionen. LVT Lebanon, 12–14.
- 16 Klapper, M., Nenov, S., Haschick, R., Müller, K. et al. (2008) Oil-in-oil emulsions: A unique tool for the formation of polymer nanoparticles. Accounts of Chemical Research, 41, 1190–1201.
- 17 Capron, I., Costeux, S., and Djabourov, M. (2001) Water in water emulsions: Phase separation and rheology of biopolymer solutions. Rheologica Acta, 40, 441–456.
- 18 Esquena, J. (2016) Water-in-water (W/W) emulsions. Current Opinion in Colloid and Interface Science, 25, 109–119.
- 19 Pal, R. (2006) Rheology of high internal phase ratio emulsions. Food Hydrocolloids, 20, 997–1005.
- 20 Sjöblom, J. (2006) Emulsions and Emulsion Stability, 2nd edn, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, Boca Raton.
- 21 Chantrapornchai, W., Clydesdale, F., and McClements, D.J. (1999) Influence of droplet characteristics on the optical properties of colored oil-in-water emulsions. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 155, 373–382.
- 22 Mason, T.G., Wilking, J.N., Meleson, K., Chang, C.B. et al. (2006) Nanoemulsions: Formation, structure, and physical properties. Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter, 18, R635–R666.
- 23 Pal, R. (1996) Effect of droplet size on the rheology of emulsions. AIChE Journal, 42, 3181–3190.
- 24 Tadros, T.F. (1994) Fundamental principles of emulsion rheology and their applications. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 91, 39–55.
- 25 Danov, K.D. (2001) On the viscosity of dilute emulsions. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 235, 144–149.
- 26 Das, A.K., Mukesh, D., Swayambunathan, V., Kotkar, D.D. et al. (1992) Concentrated emulsions. 3. Studies on the influence of continuous-phase viscosity, volume fraction, droplet size, and temperature on emulsion viscosity. Langmuir, 8, 2427–2436.
- 27 Rutgers, I.R. (1962) Relative viscosity and concentration. Rheologica Acta, 2, 305–348.
- 28 Mooney, M. (1951) The viscosity of a concentrated suspension of spherical particles. Journal of Colloid Science, 6, 162–170.
- 29 Krieger, I.M. (1963) A Dimensional Approach to Colloid Rheology. Journal of Rheology (N. Y. N. Y.), 7, 101.
- 30
Tadros, T.F. (2013) Emulsion formation, stability, and rheology, in Emulsion Formation and Stability, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, Germany, pp. 1–76.
10.1002/9783527647941.ch1 Google Scholar
- 31 Santana, R.C., Perrechil, F.A., and Cunha, R.L. (2013) High- and low-energy emulsifications for food applications: A focus on process parameters. Food Engineering Reviews, 5, 107–122.
- 32 Perazzo, A., Preziosi, V., and Guido, S. (2015) Phase inversion emulsification: Current understanding and applications. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 222, 581–599.
- 33 Fernandez, P., André, V., Rieger, J., and Kühnle, A. (2004) Nano-emulsion formation by emulsion phase inversion. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 251, 53–58.
- 34 Corkery, R.W., Blute, I.A., Friberg, S.E., and Guo, R. (2010) Emulsion inversion in the PIT range: Quantitative phase variations in a two-phase emulsion. Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data, 55, 4471–4475.
- 35 Friberg, S.E., Corkery, R.W., and Blute, I.A. (2011) Phase inversion temperature (PIT) emulsification process. Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data, 56, 4282–4290.
- 36 Thakur, R.K., Villette, C., Aubry, J.M., and Delaplace, G. (2008) Dynamic emulsification and catastrophic phase inversion of lecithin-based emulsions. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 315, 285–293.
- 37 Bouchama, F., Van Aken, G.A., Autin, A.J.E., and Koper, G.J.M. (2003) On the mechanism of catastrophic phase inversion in emulsions. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 231, 11–17.
- 38 Liu, Y., Carter, E.L., Gordon, G.V., Feng, Q.J. et al. (2012) An investigation into the relationship between catastrophic inversion and emulsion phase behaviors. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 399, 25–34.
- 39 Solans, C. and Solé, I. (2012) Nano-emulsions: Formation by low-energy methods. Current Opinion in Colloid and Interface Science, 17, 246–254.
- 40 Komaiko, J.S. and Mcclements, D.J. (2016) Formation of food-grade nanoemulsions using low-energy preparation methods: A review of available methods. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 15, 331–352.
- 41 Ostertag, F., Weiss, J., and McClements, D.J. (2012) Low-energy formation of edible nanoemulsions: Factors influencing droplet size produced by emulsion phase inversion. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 388, 95–102.
- 42 Karbstein, H.P. (1994) Untersuchungen zum Herstellen und Stabilisieren von Öl-in-Wasser-Emulsionen, Dissertation, Universität Karlsruhe.
- 43 Jafari, S.M., Assadpoor, E., He, Y., and Bhandari, B. (2008) Re-coalescence of emulsion droplets during high-energy emulsification. Food Hydrocolloids, 22, 1191–1202.
- 44 Karbstein, H. and Schubert, H. (1995) Developments in the continuous mechanical production of oil-in-water macro-emulsions. Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process, 34, 205–211.
- 45 Walstra, P. (1993) Principles of emulsion formation. Chemical Engineering Science, 48, 333–349.
- 46 Bentley, B.J. and Leal, L.G. (1986) An experimental investigation of drop deformation and breakup in steady, two-dimensional linear flows. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 167, 241.
- 47 Grace, H.P. (1982) Dispersion phenomena in high viscosity immiscible fluid systems and application of static mixers as dispersion devices in such systems. Chemical Engineering Communications, 14, 225–277.
- 48 Janssen, J.J.M. (1994) Droplet break-up in simple shear flow in the presence of emulsifiers. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 91, 141–148.
- 49 Windhab, E.J., Dressler, M., Feigl, K., Fischer, P. et al. (2005) Emulsion processing — from single-drop deformation to design of complex processes and products. 60, 2101–2113.
- 50 Stone, H. (1994) Dynamics of drop deformation and breakup in viscous fluids. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 26, 65–102.
- 51 Schlender, M., Spengler, A., and Schuchmann, H.P. (2015) High-pressure emulsion formation in cylindrical coaxial orifices: Influence of cavitation induced pattern on oil drop size. The International Journal of Multiphase Flow, 74, 84–95.
- 52 Tcholakova, S., Vankova, N., Denkov, N.D., and Danner, T. (2007) Emulsification in turbulent flow:. 3. Daughter drop-size distribution. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 310, 570–589.
- 53 Vankova, N., Tcholakova, S., Denkov, N.D., Ivanov, I.B. et al. (2007) Emulsification in turbulent flow. 1. Mean and maximum drop diameters in inertial and viscous regimes. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 312, 363–380.
- 54 Jansen, K.M.B., Agterof, W.G.M., and Mellema, J. (2001) Droplet breakup in concentrated emulsions. Journal of Rheology (N. Y. N. Y.), 45, 227.
- 55 Fischer, P. and Erni, P. (2007) Emulsion drops in external flow fields — The role of liquid interfaces. Current Opinion in Colloid and Interface Science, 12, 196–205.
- 56 Leal, L.G. and Stone, H.A. (1990) The effect of surfactant on drop deformation ans breakup. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 220, 161–186.
- 57 Schultz, S., Wagner, G., Urban, K., and Ulrich, J. (2004) High-pressure homogenization as a process for emulsion formation. Chemical Engineering and Technology, 27, 361–368.
- 58 Stang, M., Schuchmann, H., and Schubert, H. (2001) Emulsification in High-Pressure Homogenizers. Engineering in Life Sciences, 1, 151.
- 59 Lee, L. and Norton, I.T. (2013) Comparing droplet breakup for a high-pressure valve homogeniser and a Microfluidizer for the potential production of food-grade nanoemulsions. Journal of Food Engineering, 114, 158–163.
- 60 Qian, C. and McClements, D.J. (2011) Formation of nanoemulsions stabilized by model food-grade emulsifiers using high-pressure homogenization: Factors affecting particle size. Food Hydrocolloids, 25, 1000–1008.
- 61 Tesch, S., Freudig, B., and Schubert, H. (2003) Production of emulsions in high-pressure homogenizers - Part I: Disruption and stabilization of droplets. Chemical Engineering and Technology, 26, 569–573.
- 62 H.P. Schuchmann and K. Köhler (eds) (2012) Emulgiertechnik: Grundlagen, Verfahren und Anwendungen, 3rd edn, Behr's Verlag, Hamburg, Germany.
- 63 Urban, K., Wagner, G., Schaffner, D., Röglin, D. et al. (2006) Rotor-stator and disc systems for emulsification processes. Chemical Engineering and Technology, 29, 24–31.
- 64 Karbstein, H. and Schubert, H. (1995) Developments in the continuous mechanical production of oil-in-water macro-emulsions. Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process, 34, 205–211.
- 65 Armbruster, H. (1990) Untersuchungen zum kontinuierlichen Emulgierprozess in Kolloidmühlen unter Berücksichtigung spezifischer Emulgatoreigenschaften und der Strömungsverhältnisse im Dispergierspalt Dissertation, Universität Karlsruhe (TH).
- 66 Wieringa, J.A., Van Dieren, F., Janssen, J.J.M., and Agterof, W.G.M. (1996) Droplet breakup mechanisms during emulsification in colloid mills at high dispersed phase volume fraction. Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 74, 554–562.
- 67 Canselier, J.P., Delmas, H., Wilhelm, A.M., and Abismaïl, B. (2002) Ultrasound emulsification — An overview. Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 23, 333–349.
- 68 Behrend, O. and Schubert, H. (2001) Influence of hydrostatic pressure and gas content on continuous ultrasound emulsification. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 8, 271–276.
- 69 Behrend, O., Ax, K., and Schubert, H. (2000) Influence of continuous phase viscosity on emulsification by ultrasound. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 7, 77–85.
- 70 Abismail, B., Canselier, J., Wilhelm, A., Delmas, H. et al. (1999) Emulsification by ultrasound: drop size distribution and stability. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 6, 75–83.
- 71 Jafari, S.M., He, Y., and Bhandari, B. (2007) Production of sub-micron emulsions by ultrasound and microfluidization techniques. Journal of Food Engineering, 82, 478–488.
- 72 Kentish, S., Wooster, T.J., Ashokkumar, M., Balachandran, S. et al. (2008) The use of ultrasonics for nanoemulsion preparation. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 9, 170–175.
- 73 Vladisavljević, G.T., Kobayashi, I., and Nakajima, M. (2012) Production of uniform droplets using membrane, microchannel and microfluidic emulsification devices. Microfluidics and Nanofluidics, 13, 151–178.
- 74 Joscelyne, S.M. and Trägårdh, G. (2000) Membrane emulsification - A literature review. Journal of Membrane Science, 169, 107–117.
- 75 Vladisavljević, G.T. and Williams, R.A. (2006) Manufacture of large uniform droplets using rotating membrane emulsification. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 299, 396–402.
- 76 Nazir, A., Schroën, K., and Boom, R. (2010) Premix emulsification: A review. Journal of Membrane Science, 362, 1–11.
- 77 Lambrich, U. and Schubert, H. (2005) Emulsification using microporous systems. Journal of Membrane Science, 257, 76–84.
- 78 Vladisavljević, G.T., Kobayashi, I., and Nakajima, M. (2008) Generation of highly uniform droplets using asymmetric microchannels fabricated on a single crystal silicon plate: Effect of emulsifier and oil types. Powder Technology, 183, 37–45.
- 79 Nie, Z., Seo, M., Xu, S., Lewis, P.C. et al. (2008) Emulsification in a microfluidic flow-focusing device: Effect of the viscosities of the liquids. Microfluidics and Nanofluidics, 5, 585–594.
- 80 Utada, A.S., Lorenceau, E., Link, D.R., Kaplan, P.D. et al. (2005) Monodisperse double emulsions generated from a microcapillary device. Science (80-.), 308, 537–541.
- 81 Tadros, T.F. (2005) Applied Surfactants, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, Germany.
- 82
Bergenståhl, B. (2008) Physicochemical aspects of an emulsifier functionality, in Food Emulsifiers and Their Applications, Springer, pp. 173–194.
10.1007/978-0-387-75284-6_6 Google Scholar
- 83 Tadros, T.F. (2009) Polymeric surfactants in disperse systems. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 147–148, 281–299.
- 84 Evans, D.F. and Wennerström, H. (1999) The Colloidal Domain, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
- 85 Dickinson, E. (2009) Hydrocolloids as emulsifiers and emulsion stabilizers. Food Hydrocolloids, 23, 1473–1482.
- 86 Fleer, G.J. and Scheutjens, J.M.H.M. (1990) Block copolymer adsorption and stabilization of colloids. Colloids and Surfaces, 51, 281–298.
- 87 Fleer, G.J., Cohen Stuart, M.A., Scheutjens, J.M.H.M., Cosgrove, T. et al. (1993) Polymers at Interfaces, Chapman & Hall, London.
- 88 Iwanaga, D., Gray, D.A., Fisk, I.D., Decker, E.A. et al. (2007) Extraction and characterization of oil bodies from soy beans: A natural source of pre-emulsified soybean oil. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 55, 8711–8716.
- 89 Pickering, S.U. (1907) CXCVI.—emulsions. Journal of the Chemical Society, Transactions, 91, 2001–2021.
- 90 Dickinson, E. (2010) Food emulsions and foams: Stabilization by particles. Current Opinion in Colloid and Interface Science, 15, 40–49.
- 91 Binks, B.P. (2002) Particles as surfactants—similarities and differences. Current Opinion in Colloid and Interface Science, 7, 21–41.
- 92 Destribats, M., Gineste, S., Laurichesse, E., Tanner, H. et al. (2014) Pickering emulsions: What are the main parameters determining the emulsion type and interfacial properties? Langmuir, 30, 9313–9326.
- 93 Dickinson, E. (2016) Exploring the frontiers of colloidal behaviour where polymers and particles meet. Food Hydrocolloids, 52, 497–509.
- 94 Dickinson, E. (2015) Microgels — an alternative colloidal ingredient for stabilization of food emulsions. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 43, 178–188.
- 95 Massé, P., Sellier, E., Schmitt, V., and Ravaine, V. (2014) Impact of electrostatics on the adsorption of microgels at the interface of Pickering emulsions. Langmuir, 30, 14745.
- 96 Li, Z., Harbottle, D., Pensini, E., Ngai, T. et al. (2015) Fundamental study of emulsions stabilized by soft and rigid particles. Langmuir, 31, 6282–6288.
- 97 Pinaud, F., Geisel, K., Massé, P., Catargi, B. et al. (2014) Adsorption of microgels at an oil–water interface: correlation between packing and 2D elasticity. Soft Matter, 10, 6963–6974.
- 98 Destribats, M., Wolfs, M., Pinaud, F., Lapeyre, V. et al. (2013) Pickering emulsions stabilized by soft microgels: Influence of the emulsification process on particle interfacial organization and emulsion properties. Langmuir, 29, 12367–12374.
- 99 Tanford, C. (1972) Micelle shape and size. Journal of Physical Chemistry, 76, 3020–3024.
- 100
Norde, W. (2003) Colloids and Interfaces in Life Sciences, Marcel Dekker, New York.
10.1201/9780203912157 Google Scholar
- 101 Stang, M., Karbstein, H.P., and Schubert, H. (1994) Adsorption kinetics of emulsifiers at oil-water interfaces and their effect on mechanical emulsification. Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process, 33, 307–311.
- 102 Ward, A.F.H. and Tordai, L. (1946) Time-dependence of boundary tensions of solutions I. The role of diffusion in time-effects. Journal of Chemical Physics, 14, 453.
- 103 Fainerman, V.B., Makievski, A.V., and Miller, R. (1994) The analysis of dynamic surface tension of sodium alkyl sulphate solutions, based on asymptotic equations of adsorption kinetic theory. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 87, 61–75.
- 104 Díez-Pascual, A.M., Compostizo, A., Crespo-Colín, A., Rubio, R.G. et al. (2007) Adsorption of water-soluble polymers with surfactant character. Adsorption kinetics and equilibrium properties. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 307, 398–404.
- 105 Schmidt, U.S., Schütz, L., and Schuchmann, H.P. (2017) Interfacial and emulsifying properties of citrus pectin: Interaction of pH, ionic strength and degree of esterification. Food Hydrocolloids, 62, 288–298.
- 106 Stang, M., Karbstein, H.P., and Schubert, H. (1994) Adsorption kinetics of emulsifiers at oil-water interfaces and their effect on mechanical emulsification. Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process, 33, 307–311.
- 107 Wilde, P., Mackie, A., Husband, F., Gunning, P. et al. (2004) Proteins and emulsifiers at liquid interfaces. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 108–109, 63–71.
- 108 Janssen, J.J.M., Boon, A., and Agterof, W.G.M. (1997) Influence of dynamic interfacial properties on droplet breakup in plane hyperbolic flow. AIChE Journal, 43, 1436–1447.
- 109 Erni, P. (2011) Deformation modes of complex fluid interfaces. Soft Matter, 7, 7586.
- 110 Dickinson, E., Murray, B.S., and Stainsby, G. (1988) Coalescence stability of emulsion-sized droplets at a planar oil-water interface and the relationship to protein film surface rheology. Journal of the Chemical Society, Faraday Transactions 1, 84, 871.
- 111 Williams, A., Janssen, J.J.M., and Prins, A. (1997) Behaviour of droplets in simple shear flow in the presence of a protein emulsifier. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 125, 189–200.
- 112 Miller, R., Ferri, J.K., Javadi, A., Krägel, J. et al. (2010) Rheology of interfacial layers. Colloid and Polymer Science, 288, 937–950.
- 113
R. Miller and L. Liggieri (eds) (2009) Interfacial Rheology, Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden.
10.1163/ej.9789004175860.i-684 Google Scholar
- 114 Erni, P., Windhab, E.J., and Fischer, P. (2011) Emulsion drops with complex interfaces: Globular versus flexible proteins. Macromolecular Materials and Engineering, 296, 249–262.
- 115 Pawar, Y. and Stebe, K.J. (1996) Marangoni effects on drop deformation in an extensional flow: The role of surfactant physical chemistry. I. Insoluble surfactants. Physics of Fluids, 8, 1738–1751.
- 116 Janssen, J.J.M., Boon, A., and Agterof, W.G.M. (1994) Influence of dynamic interfacial properties on droplet breakup in simple shear flow. AIChE Journal, 40, 1929–1939.
- 117 Lucassen-Reynders, E. and Kuijpers, K.A. (1992) The role of interfacial properties in emulsification. Colloids and Surfaces, 65, 175–184.
- 118 Milliken, W.J. and Leal, L.G. (1991) Deformation and breakup of viscoelastic drops in planar extensional flows. Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 40, 355–379.
- 119 Erni, P., Fischer, P., and Windhab, E.J. (2005) Deformation of single emulsion drops covered with a viscoelastic adsorbed protein layer in simple shear flow. Applied Physics Letters, 87, 1–3.
- 120 Gülseren, İ.I. and Corredig, M. (2014) Interactions between polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR) and pectins at the oil-water interface and their influence on the stability of water-in-oil emulsions. Food Hydrocolloids, 34, 154–160.
- 121 Laza-Knoerr, A., Huang, N., Grossiord, J.L., Couvreur, P. et al. (2011) Interfacial rheology as a tool to study the potential of cyclodextrin polymers to stabilize oil-water interfaces. The Journal of Inclusion Phenomena and Macrocyclic Chemistry, 69, 475–479.
- 122 Jiao, J., Rhodes, D.G., and Burgess, D.J. (2002) Multiple emulsion stability: pressure balance and interfacial film strength. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 250, 444–450.
- 123 Wang, W., Li, K., Wang, P., Hao, S. et al. (2014) Effect of interfacial dilational rheology on the breakage of dispersed droplets in a dilute oil-water emulsion. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 441, 43–50.
- 124 Dicharry, C., Arla, D., Sinquin, A., Graciaa, A. et al. (2006) Stability of water/crude oil emulsions based on interfacial dilatational rheology. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 297, 785–791.
- 125 Georgieva, D., Schmitt, V., Leal-Calderon, F., and Langevin, D. (2009) On the possible role of surface elasticity in emulsion stability. Langmuir, 25, 5565–5573.
- 126 Mun, S. and McClements, D.J. (2006) Influence of interfacial characteristics on ostwald ripening in hydrocarbon oil-in-water emulsions. Langmuir, 22, 1551–1554.
- 127 Zeeb, B., Gibis, M., Fischer, L., and Weiss, J. (2012) Influence of interfacial properties on Ostwald ripening in crosslinked multilayered oil-in-water emulsions. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 387, 65–73.
- 128 Korobko, A.V., van den Ende, D., Agterof, W.G.M., and Mellema, J. (2005) Coalescence in semiconcentrated emulsions in simple shear flow. Journal of Chemical Physics, 123, 204908.
- 129 Leal, L.G. (2004) Flow induced coalescence of drops in a viscous fluid. Physics of Fluids, 16, 1833–1851.
- 130 Saboni, A., Gourdon, C., and Chesters, A.K. (1995) Drainage and rupture of partially mobile films during coalescence in liquid-liquid systems under a constant interaction force. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 175, 27–35.
- 131 Bergenståhl, B. (2015) Emulsion formation and instability, in Engineering Aspects of Food Emulsification and Homogenization (eds M. Rayner and P. Dejmek), Boca Raton, pp. 33–50.
- 132 Dickinson, E. (2003) Hydrocolloids at interfaces and the influence on the properties of dispersed systems. Food Hydrocolloids, 17, 25–39.
- 133 Dickinson, E. and Stainsby, G. (1982) Colloids in Food, Applied Science Publishers LTD, Barking, Essex.
- 134 Kamp, J., Villwock, J., and Kraume, M. (2017) Drop coalescence in technical liquid/liquid applications: a review on experimental techniques and modeling approaches. Reviews in Chemical Engineering, 33, 1–47.
- 135 Urbina-Villalba, G., Forgiarini, A., Rahn, K., and Lozsán, A. (2009) Influence of flocculation and coalescence on the evolution of the average radius of an O/W emulsion. Is a linear slope of R3 vs. t an unmistakable signature of Ostwald ripening? Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 11, 11184.
- 136 Weiss, J., Herrmann, N., and McClements, D.J. (1999) Ostwald ripening of hydrocarbon emulsion droplets in surfactant solutions. Langmuir, 15, 6652–6657.
- 137 Wooster, T.J., Golding, M., and Sanguansri, P. (2008) Impact of oil type on nanoemulsion formation and ostwald ripening stability. Langmuir, 24, 12758–12765.
- 138 Antonietti, M. and Landfester, K. (2002) Polyreactions in miniemulsions. Progress in Polymer Science, 27, 689–757.
- 139 Devlieghere, F., Vermeiren, L., and Debevere, J. (2004) New preservation technologies: Possibilities and limitations. The International Dairy Journal, 14, 273–285.
- 140 Brul, S. and Coote, P. (1999) Preservative agents in foods: Mode of action and microbial resistance mechanisms. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 50, 1–17.
- 141
S. Rahman (ed.) (2007) Handbook of Food Preservation, CRC Press, Boca Raton.
10.1201/9781420017373 Google Scholar
- 142 Lado, B.H. and Yousef, A.E. (2002) Alternative food-preservation technologies: Efficacy and mechanisms. Microbes and Infection, 4, 433–440.
- 143 Heldmann, D. (2011) Food Preservation Process Design, Academic Press, Inc.
