ISPAD Clinical Practice Consensus Guidelines 2018: Definition, epidemiology, and classification of diabetes in children and adolescents
Corresponding Author
Elizabeth J. Mayer-Davis
Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Correspondence
Elizabeth J. Mayer-Davis, PhD, Cary C Boshamer Distinguished Professor of Nutrition and Medicine, Chair, Department of Nutrition, The University of North Carolina, 245 Rosenau Drive, Chapel Hill, NC 27599.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorAnna R. Kahkoska
Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Search for more papers by this authorCraig Jefferies
Starship Children's Hospital, Auckland District Health Board, Auckland, New Zealand
Search for more papers by this authorDana Dabelea
Department of Epidemiology, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado
Search for more papers by this authorNaby Balde
Department of Endocrinology, University Hospital, Conakry, Guinea
Search for more papers by this authorChun X. Gong
Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
Search for more papers by this authorMaria E. Craig
The Children's Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
School of Women's and Children's Health, University of NSW, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Elizabeth J. Mayer-Davis
Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Correspondence
Elizabeth J. Mayer-Davis, PhD, Cary C Boshamer Distinguished Professor of Nutrition and Medicine, Chair, Department of Nutrition, The University of North Carolina, 245 Rosenau Drive, Chapel Hill, NC 27599.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorAnna R. Kahkoska
Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Search for more papers by this authorCraig Jefferies
Starship Children's Hospital, Auckland District Health Board, Auckland, New Zealand
Search for more papers by this authorDana Dabelea
Department of Epidemiology, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado
Search for more papers by this authorNaby Balde
Department of Endocrinology, University Hospital, Conakry, Guinea
Search for more papers by this authorChun X. Gong
Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
Search for more papers by this authorMaria E. Craig
The Children's Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
School of Women's and Children's Health, University of NSW, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Search for more papers by this author
REFERENCES
- 1Repaske DR. Medication-induced diabetes mellitus. Pediatr Diabetes. 2016; 17(6): 392-397.
- 2 World Health Organisation. Definition and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and intermediate hyperglycaemia: report of a WHO/IDF consultation. Geneva, Switzerland; 2006.
- 3 American Diabetes Association. 2. Classification and diagnosis of diabetes: standards of medical care in diabetes—2018. Diabetes Care. 2018; 41(suppl 1): S13-S27.
- 4Pulgaron ER, Delamater AM. Obesity and type 2 diabetes in children: epidemiology and treatment. Curr Diab Rep. 2014; 14(8): 508.
- 5Mayer-Davis EJ, Lawrence JM, Dabelea D, et al. Incidence trends of type 1 and type 2 diabetes among youths, 2002–2012. N Engl J Med. 2017; 376(15): 1419-1429.
- 6Zeitler P, Fu J, Tandon N, et al. Type 2 diabetes in the child and adolescent. Pediatr Diabetes. 2014; 5(suppl 20): 26-46.
10.1111/pedi.12179 Google Scholar
- 7 American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes--2014. Diabetes Care. 2014; 37(suppl 1): S14-S80.
- 8 WHO Guidelines Approved by the Guidelines Review Committee. Use of Glycated Haemoglobin (HbA1c) in the Diagnosis of Diabetes Mellitus: Abbreviated Report of a WHO Consultation. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Copyright (c) World Health Organization 2011; 2011.
- 9Attard S, Herring A, Wang H, et al. Implications of iron deficiency/anemia on the classification of diabetes using HbA1c. Nutr Diabetes. 2015; 5(6): e166.
- 10Moran A, Pillay K, Becker D, Granados A, Hameed S, Acerini CL. ISPAD Clinical Practice Consensus Guidelines 2018 Compendium Management of cystic fibrosis related diabetes in children and adolescents. Pediatr Diabetes. 2018;19(Suppl. 27):64-74.
10.1111/pedi.12732 Google Scholar
- 11Helminen O, Aspholm S, Pokka T, et al. HbA1c predicts time to diagnosis of type 1 diabetes in children at risk. Diabetes. 2015; 64(5): 1719-1727.
- 12Hagman E, Reinehr T, Kowalski J, Ekbom A, Marcus C, Holl R. Impaired fasting glucose prevalence in two nationwide cohorts of obese children and adolescents. Int J Obes (Lond). 2014; 38(1): 40.
- 13 American Diabetes Association. Professional Practice Committee: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes—2018. Alexandria, Virginia: American Diabetes Association; 2018.
- 14 Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. Report of the expert committee on the diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2003; 26(suppl 1): S5-S20.
- 15Rydén L, Grant PJ, Anker SD, et al. ESC guidelines on diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases developed in collaboration with the EASD-summary. Diab Vasc Dis Res. 2014; 11(3): 133-173.
- 16Huang Y, Cai X, Chen P, et al. Associations of prediabetes with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality: a meta-analysis. Ann Med. 2014; 46(8): 684-692.
- 17Ford ES, Zhao G, Li C. Pre-diabetes and the risk for cardiovascular disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010; 55(13): 1310-1317.
- 18Xu T, Liu W, Cai X, et al. Risk of coronary heart disease in different criterion of impaired fasting glucose: a meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2015; 94(40): e1740.
- 19Abdul-Ghani M, DeFronzo RA, Jayyousi A. Prediabetes and risk of diabetes and associated complications: impaired fasting glucose versus impaired glucose tolerance: does it matter? Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2016; 19(5): 394-399.
- 20Islam ST, Abraham A, Donaghue KC, et al. Plateau of adiposity in Australian children diagnosed with type 1 diabetes: a 20-year study. Diabet Med. 2014; 31: 686-690.
- 21Kapellen TM, Gausche R, Dost A, et al. Children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes in Germany are more overweight than healthy controls: results comparing DPV database and CrescNet database. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2014; 27(3–4): 209-214.
- 22Rewers A, Klingensmith G, Davis C, et al. Presence of diabetic ketoacidosis at diagnosis of diabetes mellitus in youth: the Search for diabetes in youth study. Pediatrics. 2008; 121(5): e1258-e1266.
- 23Dabelea D, Rewers A, Stafford JM, et al. Trends in the prevalence of ketoacidosis at diabetes diagnosis: the SEARCH for diabetes in youth study. Pediatrics. 2014; 133(4): e938-e945.
- 24Fendler W, Borowiec M, Baranowska-Jazwiecka A, et al. Prevalence of monogenic diabetes amongst Polish children after a nationwide genetic screening campaign. Diabetologia. 2012; 55(10): 2631-2635.
- 25Irgens HU, Molnes J, Johansson BB, et al. Prevalence of monogenic diabetes in the population-based Norwegian Childhood Diabetes Registry. Diabetologia. 2013; 56(7): 1512-1519.
- 26Pihoker C, Gilliam LK, Ellard S, et al. Prevalence, characteristics and clinical diagnosis of maturity onset diabetes of the young due to mutations in HNF1A, HNF4A, and glucokinase: results from the SEARCH for diabetes in youth. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013; 98(10): 4055-4062.
- 27Galler A, Stange T, Muller G, et al. Incidence of childhood diabetes in children aged less than 15 years and its clinical and metabolic characteristics at the time of diagnosis: data from the childhood diabetes registry of Saxony, Germany. Horm Res Paediatr. 2010; 74(4): 285-291.
- 28Dabelea D, Pihoker C, Talton JW, et al. Etiological approach to characterization of diabetes type: the SEARCH for diabetes in youth study. Diabetes Care. 2011; 34(7): 1628-1633.
- 29Oram RA, Patel K, Hill A, et al. A type 1 diabetes genetic risk score can aid discrimination between type 1 and type 2 diabetes in young adults. Diabetes Care. 2016; 39(3): 337-344.
- 30Mottalib A, Kasetty M, Mar JY, Elseaidy T, Ashrafzadeh S, Hamdy O. Weight management in patients with type 1 diabetes and obesity. Curr Diab Rep. 2017; 17(10): 92.
- 31Gill GV, Mbanya JC, Ramaiya KL, Tesfaye S. A sub-Saharan African perspective of diabetes. Diabetologia. 2009; 52(1): 8-16.
- 32Barman KK, Premalatha G, Mohan V. Tropical chronic pancreatitis. Postgrad Med J. 2003; 79(937): 606-615.
- 33Watkins RA, Evans-Molina C, Blum JS, Dimeglio LA. Established and emerging biomarkers for the prediction of type 1 diabetes: a systematic review. Transl Res. 2014; 164: 110-121.
- 34Drachenberg CB, Klassen DK, Weir MR, et al. Islet cell damage associated with tacrolimus and cyclosporine: morphological features in pancreas allograft biopsies and clinical correlation. Transplantation. 1999; 68(3): 396-402.
- 35Andrews RC, Walker BR. Glucocorticoids and insulin resistance: old hormones, new targets. Clin Sci. 1999; 96(5): 513-523.
- 36Ferris HA, Kahn CR. New mechanisms of glucocorticoid-induced insulin resistance: make no bones about it. J Clin Invest. 2012; 122(11): 3854-3857.
- 37McIntyre RS, Soczynska JK, Konarski JZ, Kennedy SH. The effect of antidepressants on glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity: synthesis and mechanisms. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2006; 5(1): 157-168.
- 38Hattersley AT, Greeley SA, Polak M, et al. ISPAD Clinical Practice Consensus Guidelines 2018: The diagnosis and management of monogenic diabetes in children and adolescents. Pediatr Diabetes. 2018;19(Suppl. 27):47-63.
- 39Insel RA, Dunne JL, Atkinson MA, et al. Staging presymptomatic type 1 diabetes: a scientific statement of JDRF, the Endocrine Society, and the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2015; 38(10): 1964-1974.
- 40Couper JJ, Haller MJ, Greenbaum CJ, et al. ISPAD Clinical Practice Consensus Guidelines 2018 Stages of type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents. Pediatric diabetes. 2018;19(Suppl. 27):20-27.
10.1111/pedi.12734 Google Scholar
- 41Howson JM, Stevens H, Smyth DJ, et al. Evidence that HLA class I and II associations with type 1 diabetes, autoantibodies to GAD and autoantibodies to IA-2, are distinct. Diabetes. 2011; 60(10): 2635-2644.
- 42Krischer JP, Lynch KF, Schatz DA, et al. The 6 year incidence of diabetes-associated autoantibodies in genetically at-risk children: the TEDDY study. Diabetologia. 2015; 58(5): 980-987.
- 43Noble JA, Valdes AM, Cook M, Klitz W, Thomson G, Erlich HA. The role of HLA class II genes in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: molecular analysis of 180 Caucasian, multiplex families. Am J Hum Genet. 1996; 59(5): 1134-1148.
- 44Lambert AP, Gillespie KM, Thomson G, et al. Absolute risk of childhood-onset type 1 diabetes defined by human leukocyte antigen class II genotype: a population-based study in the United Kingdom. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004; 89(8): 4037-4043.
- 45Nguyen C, Varney MD, Harrison LC, Morahan G. Definition of high-risk type 1 diabetes HLA-DR and HLA-DQ types using only three single nucleotide polymorphisms. Diabetes. 2013; 62(6): 2135-2140.
- 46Erlich H, Valdes AM, Noble J, et al. HLA DR-DQ haplotypes and genotypes and type 1 diabetes risk: analysis of the type 1 diabetes genetics consortium families. Diabetes. 2008; 57(4): 1084-1092.
- 47Knip M. Pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes: implications for incidence trends. Horm Res Paediatr. 2011; 76(suppl 1): 57-64.
- 48Patterson CC, Dahlquist GG, Gyurus E, Green A, Soltesz G, EURODIAB Study Group. Incidence trends for childhood type 1 diabetes in Europe during 1989-2003 and predicted new cases 2005-20: a multicentre prospective registration study. Lancet. 2009; 373(9680): 2027-2033.
- 49Steck AK, Armstrong TK, Babu SR, Eisenbarth GS, Type 1 Diabetes Genetics Consortium. Stepwise or linear decrease in penetrance of type 1 diabetes with lower-risk HLA genotypes over the past 40 years. Diabetes. 2011; 60(3): 1045-1049.
- 50Gillespie KM, Bain SC, Barnett AH, et al. The rising incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes and reduced contribution of high-risk HLA haplotypes. Lancet. 2004; 364(9446): 1699-1700.
- 51Hermann R, Knip M, Veijola R, et al. Temporal changes in the frequencies of HLA genotypes in patients with type 1 diabetes—indication of an increased environmental pressure? Diabetologia. 2003; 46(3): 420-425.
- 52Vehik K, Hamman RF, Lezotte D, et al. Trends in high-risk HLA susceptibility genes among Colorado youth with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2008; 31(7): 1392-1396.
- 53Sepe V, Loviselli A, Bottazzo GF. Genetics of type 1A diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2009; 361(2): 211.
- 54Barrett JC, Clayton DG, Concannon P, et al. Genome-wide association study and meta-analysis find that over 40 loci affect risk of type 1 diabetes. Nat Genet. 2009; 41(6): 703-707.
- 55Aly TA, Ide A, Jahromi MM, et al. Extreme genetic risk for type 1A diabetes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2006; 103(38): 14074-14079.
- 56Steck AK, Wong R, Wagner B, et al. Effects of non-HLA gene polymorphisms on development of islet autoimmunity and type 1 diabetes in a population with high-risk HLA-DR, DQ genotypes. Diabetes. 2012; 61(3): 753-758.
- 57Ziegler AG, Rewers M, Simell O, et al. Seroconversion to multiple islet autoantibodies and risk of progression to diabetes in children. JAMA. 2013; 309(23): 2473-2479.
- 58Bonifacio E, Krumsiek J, Winkler C, Theis FJ, Ziegler AG. A strategy to find gene combinations that identify children who progress rapidly to type 1 diabetes after islet autoantibody seroconversion. Acta Diabetol. 2014; 51(3): 403-411.
- 59 DPT-1 Study Group. Effects of insulin in relatives of patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 2002; 346(22): 1685-1691.
- 60Patel KA, Oram RA, Flanagan SE, et al. Type 1 diabetes genetic risk score: a novel tool to discriminate monogenic and type 1 diabetes. Diabetes. 2016; 65(7): 2094-2099.
- 61Verge CF, Gianani R, Kawasaki E, et al. Prediction of type I diabetes in first-degree relatives using a combination of insulin, GAD, and ICA512bdc/IA-2 autoantibodies. Diabetes. 1996; 45(7): 926-933.
- 62Skyler JS, Krischer JP, Wolfsdorf J, et al. Effects of oral insulin in relatives of patients with type 1 diabetes: the diabetes prevention trial--type 1. Diabetes Care. 2005; 28(5): 1068-1076.
- 63Yeung G, Rawlinson WD, Craig ME. Enterovirus infection and type 1 diabetes mellitus – a systematic review of molecular studies. BMJ. 2011; 342: d35.
- 64Laitinen OH, Honkanen H, Pakkanen O, et al. Coxsackievirus B1 is associated with induction of beta-cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes. Diabetes. 2014; 63(2): 446-455.
- 65Mustonen N, Siljander H, Peet A, et al. Early childhood infections precede development of beta-cell autoimmunity and type 1 diabetes in children with HLA-conferred disease risk. Pediatr Diabetes. 2018; 19(2): 293-299.
- 66Richardson SJ, Willcox A, Bone AJ, Foulis AK, Morgan NG. The prevalence of enteroviral capsid protein vp1 immunostaining in pancreatic islets in human type 1 diabetes. Diabetologia. 2009; 52(6): 1143-1151.
- 67Dotta F, Censini S, van Halteren AG, et al. Coxsackie B4 virus infection of beta cells and natural killer cell insulitis in recent-onset type 1 diabetic patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2007; 104(12): 5115-5120.
- 68Richardson SJ, Leete P, Bone AJ, Foulis AK, Morgan NG. Expression of the enteroviral capsid protein VP1 in the islet cells of patients with type 1 diabetes is associated with induction of protein kinase R and downregulation of Mcl-1. Diabetologia. 2013; 56(1): 185-193.
- 69Gale EA. Congenital rubella: citation virus or viral cause of type 1 diabetes? Diabetologia. 2008; 51(9): 1559-1566.
- 70 IDF Diabetes Atlas. 8th ed. Brussels, Belgium: International Diabetes Federation; 2017.
- 71 Diamond Project Group. Incidence and trends of childhood type 1 diabetes worldwide 1990-1999. Diabet Med. 2006; 23(8): 857-866.
- 72Dabelea D, Mayer-Davis EJ, Saydah S, et al. Prevalence of type 1 and type 2 diabetes among children and adolescents from 2001 to 2009. JAMA. 2014; 311(17): 1778-1786.
- 73Harjutsalo V, Sund R, Knip M, Groop PH. Incidence of type 1 diabetes in Finland. JAMA. 2013; 310(4): 427-428.
- 74Berhan Y, Waernbaum I, Lind T, Mollsten A, Dahlquist G, Swedish Childhood Diabetes Study Group. Thirty years of prospective nationwide incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes: the accelerating increase by time tends to level off in Sweden. Diabetes. 2011; 60(2): 577-581.
- 75Skrivarhaug T, Stene LC, Drivvoll AK, Strom H, Joner G, Norwegian Childhood Diabetes Study Group. Incidence of type 1 diabetes in Norway among children aged 0-14 years between 1989 and 2012: has the incidence stopped rising? Results from the Norwegian childhood diabetes registry. Diabetologia. 2014; 57(1): 57-62.
- 76Rawshani A, Landin-Olsson M, Svensson AM, et al. The incidence of diabetes among 0-34 year olds in Sweden: new data and better methods. Diabetologia. 2014; 57: 1375-1381.
- 77Newhook LA, Penney S, Fiander J, Dowden J. Recent incidence of type 1 diabetes mellitus in children 0-14 years in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada climbs to over 45/100,000: a retrospective time trend study. BMC Res Notes. 2012; 5: 628.
- 78Ilonen J, Reijonen H, Green A, et al. Geographical differences within Finland in the frequency of HLA-DQ genotypes associated with type 1 diabetes susceptibility. Eur J Immunogenet. 2000; 27(4): 225-230.
- 79Kukko M, Virtanen SM, Toivonen A, et al. Geographical variation in risk HLA-DQB1 genotypes for type 1 diabetes and signs of beta-cell autoimmunity in a high-incidence country. Diabetes Care. 2004; 27(3): 676-681.
- 80Tajima N, Morimoto A. Epidemiology of childhood diabetes mellitus in Japan. Pediatr Endocrinol Rev. 2012; 10(suppl 1): 44-50.
- 81Zhao Z, Sun C, Wang C, et al. Rapidly rising incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes in Chinese population: epidemiology in Shanghai during 1997-2011. Acta Diabetol. 2014; 51(6): 947-953.
- 82Lin WH, Wang MC, Wang WM, et al. Incidence of and mortality from type I diabetes in Taiwan from 1999 through 2010: a nationwide cohort study. PLoS One. 2014; 9(1): e86172.
- 83Park Y. Why is type 1 diabetes uncommon in Asia? Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2006; 1079: 31-40.
- 84Park YS, Wang CY, Ko KW, et al. Combinations of HLA DR and DQ molecules determine the susceptibility to insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in Koreans. Hum Immunol. 1998; 59(12): 794-801.
- 85Ikegami HIRO, Fujisawa TOMO, Kawabata YUMI, Noso SHIN, Ogihara TOSH. Genetics of type 1 diabetes: similarities and differences between Asian and Caucasian populations. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2006; 1079(1): 51-59.
- 86Sugihara S. Genetic susceptibility of childhood type 1 diabetes mellitus in Japan. Pediatr Endocrinol Rev. 2012; 10(suppl 1): 62-71.
- 87Urakami T, Suzuki J, Yoshida A, Saito H, Mugishima H. Incidence of children with slowly progressive form of type 1 diabetes detected by the urine glucose screening at schools in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2008; 80(3): 473-476.
- 88Urakami T, Yoshida A, Suzuki J, et al. Differences in prevalence of antibodies to GAD and IA-2 and their titers at diagnosis in children with slowly and rapidly progressive forms of type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2009; 83(1): 89-93.
- 89Imkampe AK, Gulliford MC. Trends in type 1 diabetes incidence in the UK in 0- to 14-year-olds and in 15- to 34-year-olds, 1991-2008. Diabet Med. 2011; 28(7): 811-814.
- 90Jarosz-Chobot P, Polanska J, Szadkowska A, et al. Rapid increase in the incidence of type 1 diabetes in Polish children from 1989 to 2004, and predictions for 2010 to 2025. Diabetologia. 2011; 54(3): 508-515.
- 91Skordis N, Efstathiou E, Kyriakides TC, et al. Epidemiology of type 1 diabetes mellitus in Cyprus: rising incidence at the dawn of the 21st century. Hormones (Athens). 2012; 11(1): 86-93.
- 92Laron Z, Lewy H, Wilderman I, et al. Seasonality of month of birth of children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus in homogenous and heterogeneous populations. Isr Med Assoc J. 2005; 7(6): 381-384.
- 93Kahn HS, Morgan TM, Case LD, et al. Association of type 1 diabetes with month of birth among U.S. youth: the SEARCH for diabetes in youth study. Diabetes Care. 2009; 32(11): 2010-2015.
- 94Weets I, Kaufman L, Van der Auwera B, et al. Seasonality in clinical onset of type 1 diabetes in Belgian patients above the age of 10 is restricted to HLA-DQ2/DQ8-negative males, which explains the male to female excess in incidence. Diabetologia. 2004; 47(4): 614-621.
- 95Wandell PE, Carlsson AC. Time trends and gender differences in incidence and prevalence of type 1 diabetes in Sweden. Curr Diabetes Rev. 2013; 9(4): 342-349.
- 96Diaz-Valencia PA, Bougnères P, Valleron A-J. Global epidemiology of type 1 diabetes in young adults and adults: a systematic review. BMC Public Health. 2015; 15(1): 255.
- 97Harjutsalo V, Sjoberg L, Tuomilehto J. Time trends in the incidence of type 1 diabetes in Finnish children: a cohort study. Lancet. 2008; 371(9626): 1777-1782.
- 98Schober E, Waldhoer T, Rami B, Hofer S. Incidence and time trend of type 1 and type 2 diabetes in Austrian children 1999-2007. J Pediatr. 2009; 155(2): 190-3.e1.
- 99Haynes A, Bulsara MK, Bower C, Jones TW, Davis EA. Cyclical variation in the incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes in Western Australia (1985-2010). Diabetes Care. 2012; 35: 2300-2302.
- 100Derraik JG, Reed PW, Jefferies C, Cutfield SW, Hofman PL, Cutfield WS. Increasing incidence and age at diagnosis among children with type 1 diabetes mellitus over a 20-year period in Auckland (New Zealand). PLoS One. 2012; 7(2): e32640.
- 101Sipetic S, Maksimovic J, Vlajinac H, et al. Rising incidence of type 1 diabetes in Belgrade children aged 0-14 years in the period from 1982 to 2005. J Endocrinol Investig. 2013; 36(5): 307-312.
- 102Bruno G, Maule M, Biggeri A, et al. More than 20 years of registration of type 1 diabetes in Sardinian children: temporal variations of incidence with age, period of diagnosis, and year of birth. Diabetes. 2013; 62(10): 3542-3546.
- 103Lipman TH, Levitt Katz LE, Ratcliffe SJ, et al. Increasing incidence of type 1 diabetes in youth: twenty years of the Philadelphia pediatric diabetes registry. Diabetes Care. 2013; 36: 1597-1603.
- 104Tran F, Stone M, Huang CY, et al. Population-based incidence of diabetes in Australian youth aged 10-18 yr: increase in type 1 diabetes but not type 2 diabetes. Pediatr Diabetes. 2014; 15: 585-590.
- 105Lawrence JM, Imperatore G, Dabelea D, et al. Trends in incidence of type 1 diabetes among non-Hispanic white youth in the United States, 2002-2009. Diabetes. 2014; 63: 3938-3945.
- 106Patterson C, Gyürüs E, Rosenbauer J, et al. Trends in childhood type 1 diabetes incidence in Europe during 1989–2008: evidence of non-uniformity over time in rates of increase. Diabetologia. 2012; 55(8): 2142-2147.
- 107Dahlquist G, Mustonen L, Group SCDS. Analysis of 20 years of prospective registration of childhood onset diabetes–time trends and birth cohort effects. Acta Paediatr. 2000; 89(10): 1231-1237.
- 108Gong C, Meng X, Saenger P, et al. Trends in the incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes mellitus in Beijing based on hospitalization data from 1995 to 2010. Horm Res Paediatr. 2013; 80(5): 328-334.
- 109Gyurus EK, Patterson C, Soltesz G. Twenty-one years of prospective incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes in Hungary--the rising trend continues (or peaks and highlands?). Pediatr Diabetes. 2012; 13(1): 21-25.
- 110Cinek O, Kulich M, Sumnik Z. The incidence of type 1 diabetes in young Czech children stopped rising. Pediatr Diabetes. 2012; 13: 559-563.
- 111Kraan JA, Claessen FMAP, Elliott KD, et al. Population based incidence of type 1 diabetes in New South Wales Australia 1990-2010 - have we reached a plateau? (Oral abstract). Pediatr Diabetes. 2011; 12(suppl 15):14-39.
- 112Fernández-Ramos C, Arana-Arri E, Jiménez-Huertas P, Vela A, Rica I. Incidence of childhood-onset type 1 diabetes in Biscay, Spain, 1990–2013. Pediatr Diabetes. 2017; 18(1): 71-76.
- 113Haynes A, Bulsara MK, Bower C, Jones TW, Davis EA. Regular peaks and troughs in the Australian incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes mellitus (2000–2011). Diabetologia. 2015; 58(11): 2513-2516.
- 114Fourlanos S, Varney MD, Tait BD, et al. The rising incidence of type 1 diabetes is accounted for by cases with lower-risk human leukocyte antigen genotypes. Diabetes Care. 2008; 31(8): 1546-1549.
- 115Hemminki K, Li X, Sundquist J, Sundquist K. Familial association between type 1 diabetes and other autoimmune and related diseases. Diabetologia. 2009; 52(9): 1820-1828.
- 116Parkkola A, Harkonen T, Ryhanen SJ, Ilonen J, Knip M. Extended family history of type 1 diabetes and phenotype and genotype of newly diagnosed children. Diabetes Care. 2013; 36(2): 348-354.
- 117Olmos P, A'Hern R, Heaton DA, et al. The significance of the concordance rate for type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes in identical twins. Diabetologia. 1988; 31(10): 747-750.
- 118Harjutsalo V, Podar T, Tuomilehto J. Cumulative incidence of type 1 diabetes in 10,168 siblings of Finnish young-onset type 1 diabetic patients. Diabetes. 2005; 54(2): 563-569.
- 119Steck AK, Barriga KJ, Emery LM, Fiallo-Scharer RV, Gottlieb PA, Rewers MJ. Secondary attack rate of type 1 diabetes in Colorado families. Diabetes Care. 2005; 28(2): 296-300.
- 120Gillespie KM, Aitken RJ, Wilson I, Williams AJ, Bingley PJ. Early onset of diabetes in the proband is the major determinant of risk in HLA DR3-DQ2/DR4-DQ8 siblings. Diabetes. 2014; 63(3): 1041-1047.
- 121Gillespie KM, Gale EA, Bingley PJ. High familial risk and genetic susceptibility in early onset childhood diabetes. Diabetes. 2002; 51(1): 210-214.
- 122Green A, Schober E, Christov V, et al. Familial risk of type 1 diabetes in European children. Diabetologia. 1998; 41(10): 1151-1156.
- 123Dorman JS, Steenkiste AR, O'Leary LA, McCarthy BJ, Lorenzen T, Foley TP. Type 1 diabetes in offspring of parents with type 1 diabetes: the tip of an autoimmune iceberg? Pediatr Diabetes. 2000; 1(1): 17-22.
- 124El Hashimy M, Angelico MC, Martin BC, Krolewski AS, Warram JH. Factors modifying the risk of IDDM in offspring of an IDDM parent. Diabetes. 1995; 44(3): 295-299.
- 125Lorenzen T, Pociot F, Stilgren L, et al. Predictors of IDDM recurrence risk in offspring of Danish IDDM patients. Danish IDDM Epidemiology and Genetics Group. Diabetologia. 1998; 41(6): 666-673.
- 126Warram JH, Krolewski AS, Gottlieb MS, Kahn CR. Differences in risk of insulin-dependent diabetes in offspring of diabetic mothers and diabetic fathers. N Engl J Med. 1984; 311(3): 149-152.
- 127Harjutsalo V, Lammi N, Karvonen M, Groop PH. Age at onset of type 1 diabetes in parents and recurrence risk in offspring. Diabetes. 2010; 59(1): 210-214.
- 128Kahn SE, Cooper ME, Del Prato S. Pathophysiology and treatment of type 2 diabetes: perspectives on the past, present, and future. Lancet. 2014; 383(9922): 1068-1083.
- 129Farsani SF, Van Der Aa M, Van Der Vorst M, Knibbe C, De Boer A. Global trends in the incidence and prevalence of type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents: a systematic review and evaluation of methodological approaches. Diabetologia. 2013; 56(7): 1471-1488.
- 130Fagot-Campagna A, Pettitt D, Engelgau M, et al. Type 2 diabetes among north American children and adн olescents: an epidemiologic review and a public health perspective. J Pediatr. 2000; 136: 664-672.
- 131Reinehr T. Type 2 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents. World J Diabetes. 2013; 4(6): 270-281.
- 132Delva J, O'Malley PM, Johnston LD. Racial/ethnic and socioeconomic status differences in overweight and health-related behaviors among American students: national trends 1986–2003. J Adolesc Health. 2006; 39(4): 536-545.
- 133Chen L, Magliano DJ, Zimmet PZ. The worldwide epidemiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus—present and future perspectives. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2012; 8(4): 228-236.
- 134Cizza G, Brown R, Rothe K. Rising incidence and challenges of childhood diabetes. A mini review. J Endocrinol Investig. 2012; 35(5): 541-546.
- 135Tattersall R. Maturity-onset diabetes of the young: a clinical history. Diabet Med. 1998; 15(1): 11-14.
10.1002/(SICI)1096-9136(199801)15:1<11::AID-DIA561>3.0.CO;2-0 CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
- 136Fajans SS, Bell GI. MODY: history, genetics, pathophysiology, and clinical decision making. Diabetes Care. 2011; 34(8): 1878-1884.
- 137Fajans SS, Bell GI, Polonsky KS. Molecular mechanisms and clinical pathophysiology of maturity-onset diabetes of the young. N Engl J Med. 2001; 345(13): 971-980.
- 138Tattersall RB, Fajans SS. A difference between the inheritance of classical juvenile-onset and maturity-onset type diabetes of young people. Diabetes. 1975; 24(1): 44-53.
- 139Awa WL, Schober E, Wiegand S, et al. Reclassification of diabetes type in pediatric patients initially classified as type 2 diabetes mellitus: 15 years follow-up using routine data from the German/Austrian DPV database. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2011; 94: 463-467.
- 140 American Diabetes Association. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2014; 37(suppl 1): S81-S90.
- 141Chakera AJ, Steele AM, Gloyn AL, et al. Recognition and management of individuals with hyperglycemia because of a heterozygous glucokinase mutation. Diabetes Care. 2015; 38(7): 1383-1392.
- 142Murphy R, Ellard S, Hattersley AT. Clinical implications of a molecular genetic classification of monogenic beta-cell diabetes. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. 2008; 4(4): 200-213.
- 143Edghill EL, Dix RJ, Flanagan SE, et al. HLA genotyping supports a nonautoimmune etiology in patients diagnosed with diabetes under the age of 6 months. Diabetes. 2006; 55(6): 1895-1898.
- 144Iafusco D, Stazi MA, Cotichini R, et al. Permanent diabetes mellitus in the first year of life. Diabetologia. 2002; 45(6): 798-804.
- 145Rubio-Cabezas O, Minton JA, Caswell R, et al. Clinical heterogeneity in patients with FOXP3 mutations presenting with permanent neonatal diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2009; 32(1): 111-116.
- 146Rubio-Cabezas O, Flanagan SE, Damhuis A, Hattersley AT, Ellard S. KATP channel mutations in infants with permanent diabetes diagnosed after 6 months of life. Pediatr Diabetes. 2012; 13(4): 322-325.
- 147Rubio-Cabezas O, Edghill EL, Argente J, Hattersley AT. Testing for monogenic diabetes among children and adolescents with antibody-negative clinically defined type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med. 2009; 26(10): 1070-1074.
- 148Mohamadi A, Clark LM, Lipkin PH, Mahone EM, Wodka EL, Plotnick LP. Medical and developmental impact of transition from subcutaneous insulin to oral glyburide in a 15-yr-old boy with neonatal diabetes mellitus and intermediate DEND syndrome: extending the age of KCNJ11 mutation testing in neonatal DM. Pediatr Diabetes. 2010; 11(3): 203-207.
- 149Guillausseau PJ, Dubois-Laforgue D, Massin P, et al. Heterogeneity of diabetes phenotype in patients with 3243 bp mutation of mitochondrial DNA (maternally inherited diabetes and deafness or MIDD). Diabetes Metab. 2004; 30(2): 181-186.
- 150Laloi-Michelin M, Meas T, Ambonville C, et al. The clinical variability of maternally inherited diabetes and deafness is associated with the degree of heteroplasmy in blood leukocytes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009; 94(8): 3025-3030.
- 151Reardon W, Ross RJ, Sweeney MG, et al. Diabetes mellitus associated with a pathogenic point mutation in mitochondrial DNA. Lancet. 1992; 340(8832): 1376-1379.
- 152van den Ouweland JM, Lemkes HH, Ruitenbeek W, et al. Mutation in mitochondrial tRNA(Leu)(UUR) gene in a large pedigree with maternally transmitted type II diabetes mellitus and deafness. Nat Genet. 1992; 1(5): 368-371.
- 153Mazzaccara C, Iafusco D, Liguori R, et al. Mitochondrial diabetes in children: seek and you will find it. PLoS One. 2012; 7(4): e34956.
- 154Rana M, Munns CF, Selvadurai H, Donaghue KC, Craig ME. Cystic fibrosis-related diabetes in children-gaps in the evidence? Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2010, 2010; 6(7): 371-378.
- 155 M Rana, C Munns, H Selvadurai, et al., eds. Population-Based Incidence of CFRD in NSW and ACT, Australia. Orlando, FL: American Diabetes Association Meeting; 2010.
- 156Hameed S, Morton JR, Jaffe A, et al. Early glucose abnormalities in cystic fibrosis are preceded by poor weight gain. Diabetes Care. 2010; 33(2): 221-226.
- 157Waugh N, Royle P, Craigie I, et al. Screening for cystic fibrosis-related diabetes: a systematic review. Health Technol Assess. 2012; 16(24):iii-iv): 1-179.
- 158Moran A, Dunitz J, Nathan B, Saeed A, Holme B, Thomas W. Cystic fibrosis-related diabetes: current trends in prevalence, incidence, and mortality. Diabetes Care. 2009; 32(9): 1626-1631.
- 159Moran A, Milla C, Ducret R, Nair KS. Protein metabolism in clinically stable adult cystic fibrosis patients with abnormal glucose tolerance. Diabetes. 2001; 50(6): 1336-1343.
- 160Fowler C. Hereditary hemochromatosis: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management. Crit Care Nurs Clin North Am. 2008; 20(2): 191-201.
- 161Toumba M, Sergis A, Kanaris C, Skordis N. Endocrine complications in patients with Thalassaemia major. Pediatr Endocrinol Rev. 2007; 5(2): 642-648.
- 162Mitchell TC, McClain DA. Diabetes and hemochromatosis. Curr Diab Rep. 2014; 14(5): 488.
- 163Berne C, Pollare T, Lithell H. Effects of antihypertensive treatment on insulin sensitivity with special reference to ACE inhibitors. Diabetes Care. 1991; 14(suppl 4): 39-47.
- 164Vestri HS, Maianu L, Moellering DR, Garvey WT. Atypical antipsychotic drugs directly impair insulin action in adipocytes: effects on glucose transport, lipogenesis, and antilipolysis. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2007; 32(4): 765-772.
- 165Pui CH, Burghen GA, Bowman WP, Aur RJ. Risk factors for hyperglycemia in children with leukemia receiving L-asparaginase and prednisone. J Pediatr. 1981; 99(1): 46-50.
- 166Al Uzri A, Stablein DM, Cohn A. Posttransplant diabetes mellitus in pediatric renal transplant recipients: a report of the North American Pediatric Renal Transplant Cooperative Study (NAPRTCS). Transplantation. 2001; 72(6): 1020-1024.
- 167Maes BD, Kuypers D, Messiaen T, et al. Posttransplantation diabetes mellitus in FK-506-treated renal transplant recipients: analysis of incidence and risk factors. Transplantation. 2001; 72(10): 1655-1661.
- 168First MR, Gerber DA, Hariharan S, Kaufman DB, Shapiro R. Posttransplant diabetes mellitus in kidney allograft recipients: incidence, risk factors, and management. Transplantation. 2002; 73(3): 379-386.
- 169Bobo WV, Cooper WO, Stein CM, et al. Antipsychotics and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in children and youth. JAMA Psychiat. 2013; 70(10): 1067-1075.
10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.2053 Google Scholar
- 170Amed S, Dean H, Sellers EA, et al. Risk factors for medication-induced diabetes and type 2 diabetes. J Pediatr. 2011; 159(2): 291-296.
- 171Bhisitkul DM, Morrow AL, Vinik AI, Shults J, Layland JC, Rohn R. Prevalence of stress hyperglycemia among patients attending a pediatric emergency department. J Pediatr. 1994; 124(4): 547-551.
- 172Valerio G, Franzese A, Carlin E, Pecile P, Perini R, Tenore A. High prevalence of stress hyperglycaemia in children with febrile seizures and traumatic injuries. Acta Paediatr. 2001; 90(6): 618-622.
- 173Gauglitz GG, Herndon DN, Kulp GA, Meyer WJ 3rd, Jeschke MG. Abnormal insulin sensitivity persists up to three years in pediatric patients post-burn. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009; 94(5): 1656-1664.
- 174Saz EU, Ozen S, Simsek Goksen D, Darcan S. Stress hyperglycemia in febrile children: relationship to prediabetes. Minerva Endocrinol. 2011; 36(2): 99-105.
- 175Weiss SL, Alexander J, Agus MS. Extreme stress hyperglycemia during acute illness in a pediatric emergency department. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2010; 26(9): 626-632.
- 176Herskowitz RD, Wolfsdorf JI, Ricker AT, et al. Transient hyperglycemia in childhood: identification of a subgroup with imminent diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Res. 1988; 9(4): 161-167.
- 177Schatz DA, Kowa H, Winter WE, Riley WJ. Natural history of incidental hyperglycemia and glycosuria of childhood. J Pediatr. 1989; 115(5 Pt 1): 676-680.
- 178Vardi P, Shehade N, Etzioni A, et al. Stress hyperglycemia in childhood: a very high risk group for the development of type I diabetes. J Pediatr. 1990; 117(1 Pt 1): 75-77.
- 179Herskowitz-Dumont R, Wolfsdorf JI, Jackson RA, Eisenbarth GS. Distinction between transient hyperglycemia and early insulin- dependent diabetes mellitus in childhood: a prospective study of incidence and prognostic factors. J Pediatr. 1993; 123(3): 347-354.
- 180Bhisitkul DM, Vinik AI, Morrow AL, et al. Prediabetic markers in children with stress hyperglycemia. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1996; 150(9): 936-941.
- 181Shehadeh N, On A, Kessel I, et al. Stress hyperglycemia and the risk for the development of type 1 diabetes. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 1997; 10(3): 283-286.