Antiparasitic Collars: Concentration Levels of Imidacloprid and Flumethrin in Dog Fur Suggest Low Toxicity Risks for Adult Humans
Laurent Rougier
Clinique de la Tivolliere, Voreppe, France
No Ledge Research, Voreppe, France
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Sylvia Masson
Clinique de la Tivolliere, Voreppe, France
No Ledge Research, Voreppe, France
Correspondence:
Sylvia Masson ([email protected])
Search for more papers by this authorLaurent Rougier
Clinique de la Tivolliere, Voreppe, France
No Ledge Research, Voreppe, France
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Sylvia Masson
Clinique de la Tivolliere, Voreppe, France
No Ledge Research, Voreppe, France
Correspondence:
Sylvia Masson ([email protected])
Search for more papers by this authorFunding: This work was supported by Clinique de la Tivolliere. Doran International.
ABSTRACT
Seresto by Elanco (formerly Bayer Animal Health) is a collar for cats and dogs that provides long-lasting antiparasitic protection through the gradual release of imidacloprid and flumethrin onto the animal's skin. Although the EPA has deemed Seresto safe, their assessment is based on laboratory data, which may not fully reflect real-world exposure. Furthermore, recent reports of over 900 adverse human health events between 2012 and 2022 underscore the need for further safety investigations. We measured these chemicals' concentrations from the fur of eight dogs over 9 months to evaluate how daily interactions with pets could expose humans to toxic levels. Flumethrin was mostly undetectable, and imidacloprid levels were well below the toxicity threshold, suggesting low risks. However, factors like cumulative exposure and individual characteristics warrant consideration. Concentration levels were highest right after collar application, potentially reaching up to 11.6% of an 8 kg child's acceptable daily intake. We recommend limiting prolonged contact with pets, especially for young children, in the first 48 h post-application. We detected residual imidacloprid prior to collar application and 1 month after removal, raising questions as to the potential contamination risks that roaming pets could pose to ecosystems, given the known environmental impacts of these chemicals.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Open Research
Data Availability Statement
The data that supports the findings of this study are available in the Supporting Information—S1 of this article.
Supporting Information
Filename | Description |
---|---|
jvp13508-sup-0001-Supinfo.zipZip archive, 2.1 KB |
Data S1. Full dataset used in the analyses and plots. Data S2. R-script used for the statistical analyses and creation of figures. |
Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.
References
- Başçi, Z., and G. Eraslan. 2015. “Toxicokinetic of Flumethrin in Rabbits.” Drug and Chemical Toxicology 38, no. 1: 92–97. https://doi.org/10.3109/01480545.2014.910805.
- Bates, D., M. Mächler, B. Bolker, and S. Walker. 2015. “Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using Lme4.” Journal of Statistical Software 67, no. 1: 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01.
- Beugnet, F., M. Servonnet, L. Halos, and W. Lebon. 2018. “Comparative Efficacy of Frontline tri-Act® Spot on (Fipronil/Permethrin) Versus Seresto® Collar (Imidacloprid/Flumethrin) Against Fleas (Ctenocephalides Felis) and Ticks (Rhipicephalus sanguineus) on Dogs With Simulation of bi-Monthly Rain Exposure.” Open Journal of Veterinary Medicine 8, no. 5: 65–74. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojvm.2018.85008.
- Bland, S. D. 2014. “ Human Exposure to Etofenprox, (s)-Methoprene, and Piperonyl Butoxide From Dogs Treated With Bio Spot Defense®.” In Thesis. Murray State University.
- Bolker, B. M. 2015. “ Linear and Generalized Linear Mixed Models.” In Ecological Statistics, edited by G. A. Fox, S. Negrete-Yankelevich, and V. J. Sosa, 309–333. Oxford University Press.
10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199672547.003.0014 Google Scholar
- Brianti, E., E. Napoli, G. Gaglio, et al. 2016. “Field Evaluation of Two Different Treatment Approaches and Their Ability to Control Fleas and Prevent Canine Leishmaniosis in a Highly Endemic Area.” PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 10, no. 9: e0004987. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0004987.
- Carlsson, G., J. Patring, J. Kreuger, L. Norrgren, and A. Oskarsson. 2013. “Toxicity of 15 Veterinary Pharmaceuticals in Zebrafish (Danio rerio) Embryos.” Aquatic Toxicology 126: 30–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2012.10.008.
- Case, K. M., N. M. Vega, R. C. Gupta, M. A. Lasher, and T. D. Canerdy. 2016. “Safety Evaluation of Parastar® Plus in Dogs and Assessment of Transferable Residue of Fipronil and Cyphenothrin From Dogs to Humans.” Frontiers in Veterinary Science 3: 1–26. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2016.00089.
- Chambers, J. E., J. S. Boone, M. K. Davis, J. E. Moran, and J. W. Tyler. 2007. “Assessing Transferable Residues From Intermittent Exposure to Flea Control Collars Containing the Organophosphate Insecticide Chlorpyrifos.” Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology 17, no. 7: 656–666. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jes.7500570.
- Craig, M. S., R. C. Gupta, T. D. Candery, and D. A. Britton. 2005. “Human Exposure to Imidacloprid From Dogs Treated With Advantage®.” Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods 15, no. 4: 287–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/15376520590968842.
- de Burgh, S., K. Hunter, C. Jackson, M. Chambers, C. Klupiec, and V. Smith. 2017. “Repellency Effect of an Imidacloprid / Flumethrin (Seresto®) Controlled Release Polymer Matrix Collar Against the Australian Paralysis Tick (Ixodes holocyclus) in Dogs.” Parasitology Research 116, no. S1: 145–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-017-5500-4.
- Dyk, M. B., Y. Liu, Z. Chen, H. Vega, and R. I. Krieger. 2012. “Fate and Distribution of Fipronil on Companion Animals and in Their Indoor Residences Following Spot-On Flea Treatments.” Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B 47, no. 10: 913–924. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2012.706548.
- El Agrebi, N., O. Wilmart, B. Urbain, E. L. Danneels, D. C. De Graaf, and C. Saegerman. 2019. “Belgian Case Study on Flumethrin Residues in Beeswax: Possible Impact on Honeybee and Prediction of the Maximum Daily Intake for Consumers.” Science of the Total Environment 687: 712–719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.05.493.
- Fedrizzi, G., A. Altafini, S. Armorini, K. M. Al-Qudah, and P. Roncada. 2019. “LC–MS/MS Analysis of Five Neonicotinoid Pesticides in Sheep and Cow Milk Samples Collected in Jordan Valley.” Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 102, no. 3: 347–352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-019-02555-8.
- Fisara, P., M. Shipstone, A. Von Berky, and J. Von Berky. 2015. “A Small-Scale Open-Label Study of the Treatment of Canine Flea Allergy Dermatitis With Fluralaner.” Veterinary Dermatology 26, no. 6: 417. https://doi.org/10.1111/vde.12249.
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2002. “ Pesticide Residues in Food—2001.” In Report of the Joint Meeting of the FAO Panel of Experts on Pesticide Residues in Food and the Environment and the WHO Core Assessment Group. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. World Health Organization.
- Garnier, S., N. Ross, R. Rudis, A. P. Camargo, M. Sciaini, and C. Scherer. 2023. Viridis (Lite)—Colorblind-Friendly Color Maps for R. viridis Package Version 0.6.4.
- Gervais, J. A., B. Luukinen, K. Buhl, and D. Stone. 2010. Imidacloprid Technical Fact Sheet. National Pesticide Information Center, Oregon State University Extension Services. Chronic Imidacloprid Toxicity in Rats with Paticular Reference to Reproductive Toxicity and Foetal 110.
- Goulson, D. 2013. “REVIEW: An Overview of the Environmental Risks Posed by Neonicotinoid Insecticides.” Journal of Applied Ecology 50, no. 4: 977–987. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12111.
- Gupta, R. C., M. B. Masthay, T. D. Canerdy, et al. 2005. “Human Exposure to Selamectin From Dogs Treated With Revolution™: Methodological Consideration for Selamectin Isolation.” Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods 15, no. 4: 317–321. https://doi.org/10.1080/15376520590968860.
- Horak, I. G., J. J. Fourie, and D. Stanneck. 2012. “Efficacy of Slow-Release Collar Formulations of Imidacloprid/Flumethrin and Deltamethrin and of Spot-On Formulations of Fipronil/(s)—Methoprene, Dinotefuran/Pyriproxyfen/Permethrin and (s)–Methoprene/Amitraz/Fipronil Against Rhipicephalus Sanguineus and Ctenocephalides Felis Felis on Dogs.” Parasites & Vectors 5, no. 1: 79. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-5-79.
- Jennings, K. A., T. D. Canerdy, R. J. Keller, B. H. Atieh, R. B. Doss, and R. C. Gupta. 2002. “Human Exposure to Fipronil From Dogs Treated With Frontline.” Veterinary and Human Toxicology 44, no. 5: 301–303.
- Krieger, R. 2010. Hayes' Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology. Academic Press.
- Kumar, A., A. Verma, and A. Kumar. 2013. “Accidental Human Poisoning With a Neonicotinoid Insecticide, Imidacloprid: A Rare Case Report From Rural India With a Brief Review of Literature.” Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences 3, no. 4: 123–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejfs.2013.05.002.
- Kuznetsova, A., P. B. Brockhoff, and R. H. B. Christensen. 2017. “lmerTest Package: Tests in Linear Mixed Effects Models.” Journal of Statistical Software 82, no. 13: 1–26. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v082.i13.
- Leahy, J., M. Mendelsohn, J. Kough, R. Jones, and N. Berckes. 2014. “ Biopesticide Oversight and Registration at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.” In ACS Symposium Series, edited by A. D. Gross, J. R. Coats, S. O. Duke, and J. N. Seiber, vol. 1172, 3–18. American Chemical Society.
- Li, Z.-M., M. Robinson, and K. Kannan. 2022. “An Assessment of Exposure to Several Classes of Pesticides in Pet Dogs and Cats From New York, United States.” Environment International 169: 107526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2022.107526.
- Lüdecke, D. 2023. sjPlot: Data Visualization for Statistics in Social Science.
- Magalhaes, L. C., T. E. Hunt, and B. D. Siegfried. 2009. “Efficacy of Neonicotinoid Seed Treatments to Reduce Soybean Aphid Populations Under Field and Controlled Conditions in Nebraska.” Journal of Economic Entomology 102, no. 1: 187–195. https://doi.org/10.1603/029.102.0127.
- Mohamed, F., I. Gawarammana, T. A. Robertson, et al. 2009. “Acute Human Self-Poisoning With Imidacloprid Compound: A Neonicotinoid Insecticide.” PLoS One 4, no. 4: e5127. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005127.
- Nakagawa, S., and H. Schielzeth. 2013. “A General and Simple Method for Obtaining R2 From Generalized Linear Mixed-Effects Models.” Methods in Ecology and Evolution 4, no. 2: 133–142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2041-210x.2012.00261.x.
- Pang, S., Z. Lin, Y. Zhang, et al. 2020. “Insights Into the Toxicity and Degradation Mechanisms of Imidacloprid via Physicochemical and Microbial Approaches.” Toxics 8, no. 3: 65. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics8030065.
- Pantchev, N., M. Schnyder, M. G. Vrhovec, R. Schaper, and I. Tsachev. 2015. “Current Surveys of the Seroprevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi, Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Leishmania infantum, Babesia canis, Angiostrongylus vasorum and Dirofilaria immitis in Dogs in Bulgaria.” Parasitology Research 114, no. S1: 117–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-015-4518-8.
10.1007/s00436-015-4518-8 Google Scholar
- Perkins, R., L. Barron, G. Glauser, M. Whitehead, G. Woodward, and D. Goulson. 2024. “Down-The-Drain Pathways for Fipronil and Imidacloprid Applied as Spot-On Parasiticides to Dogs: Estimating Aquatic Pollution.” Science of the Total Environment 917: 170175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170175.
- Pietrzak, D., K. Wątor, D. Pękała, et al. 2019. “LC-MS/MS Method Validation for Determination of Selected Neonicotinoids in Groundwater for the Purpose of a Column Experiment.” Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B 54, no. 5: 424–431. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2019.1574173.
- R Core Team. 2023. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
- Salis, S., C. Testa, P. Roncada, et al. 2017. “Occurrence of Imidacloprid, Carbendazim, and Other Biocides in Italian House Dust: Potential Relevance for Intakes in Children and Pets.” Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B 52, no. 9: 699–709. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2017.1331675.
- Seccia, S., P. Fidente, D. A. Barbini, and P. Morrica. 2005. “Multiresidue Determination of Nicotinoid Insecticide Residues in Drinking Water by Liquid Chromatography With Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry.” Analytica Chimica Acta 553, no. 1–2: 21–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2005.08.006.
- See, A., S. McGill, A. Raisis, and K. Swindells. 2009. “Toxicity in Three Dogs From Accidental Oral Administration of a Topical Endectocide Containing Moxidectin and Imidacloprid.” Australian Veterinary Journal 87, no. 8: 334–337. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-0813.2009.00448.x.
- Smith, C. 2012. Flumethrin: Human Health Risk Assessment for the Section 3 Registration Action for Cat and Dog Collars. DP No. 392125. Office of Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention.
- Smith, W. M., L. A. Ahlstrom, and R. Rees. 2013. “Long-Term Efficacy of an Imidacloprid 10% / Flumethrin 4.5% Polymer Matrix Collar (Seresto®, Bayer) Against the Australian Paralysis Tick (Ixodes holocyclus) in Dogs.” Parasitology Research 112, no. S1: 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-013-3276-8.
- Stanneck, D., U. Ebbinghaus-Kintscher, E. Schoenhense, et al. 2012a. “The Synergistic Action of Imidacloprid and Flumethrin and Their Release Kinetics From Collars Applied for Ectoparasite Control in Dogs and Cats.” Parasites & Vectors 5, no. 1: 73. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-5-73.
- Stanneck, D., E. M. Kruedewagen, J. J. Fourie, I. G. Horak, W. Davis, and K. J. Krieger. 2012b. “Efficacy of an Imidacloprid/Flumethrin Collar Against Fleas, Ticks, Mites and Lice on Dogs.” Parasites & Vectors 5, no. 1: 102. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-5-102.
- Stanneck, D., J. Rass, I. Radeloff, et al. 2012c. “Evaluation of the Long-Term Efficacy and Safety of an Imidacloprid 10%/Flumethrin 4.5% Polymer Matrix Collar (Seresto®) in Dogs and Cats Naturally Infested With Fleas and/or Ticks in Multicentre Clinical Field Studies in Europe.” Parasites & Vectors 5, no. 1: 66. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-5-66.
- Teerlink, J., J. Hernandez, and R. Budd. 2017. “Fipronil Washoff to Municipal Wastewater From Dogs Treated With Spot-On Products.” Science of the Total Environment 599-600: 960–966. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.04.219.
- Testa, C., S. Salis, N. Rubattu, P. Roncada, R. Miniero, and G. Brambilla. 2019. “Occurrence of Fipronil in Residential House Dust in the Presence and Absence of Pets: A Hint for a Comprehensive Toxicological Assessment.” Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B 54, no. 6: 441–448. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2019.1607133.
- US Environmental protection agency. 2024. The EPA Needs to Determine Whether Seresto Pet Collars Pose an Unreasonable Risk to Pet Health—Report No. 24-E-0023.
- Vega Barreto, N. M. 2016. “ Human Exposure to Permethrin and Pyriproxyfen From Dogs Treated With Vetguard Plus™.” In Thesis. Murray State University.
- Vogt, N., and C. Stevens. 2021. “Data Needed to Allay Safety Concerns Surrounding Flea and Tick Collars.” Veterinary Record 188, no. 10: 397–398. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.540.
- Wells, C., and C. M. T. Collins. 2022. “A Rapid Evidence Assessment of the Potential Risk to the Environment Presented by Active Ingredients in the UK's Most Commonly Sold Companion Animal Parasiticides.” Environmental Science and Pollution Research 29, no. 30: 45070–45088. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20204-2.
- Wickham, H. 2016. ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis.
- Wickham, H., R. François, L. Henry, K. Müller, and D. Vaughan. 2023. dplyr: A Grammar of Data Manipulation.
- Wickham, H., and D. Seidel. 2022. Scales: Scale Functions for Visualization.
- World Health Organization, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2019. Evaluation of Certain Veterinary Drug Residues in Food: Eighty-Eighth Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. World Health Organization.
- Xu, S., M. Chen, T. Feng, L. Zhan, L. Zhou, and Y. Guangchuang. 2021. “Use Ggbreak to Effectively Utilize Plotting Space to Deal With Large Datasets and Outliers.” Frontiers in Genetics 12: 774846. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2021.774846.
- Yang, X., J. Luo, S. Li, and C. Liu. 2016. “Evaluation of Nine Pesticide Residues in Three Minor Tropical Fruits From Southern China.” Food Control 60: 677–682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.08.036.
- Zhao, H., J. Zulkoski, and K. Mastovska. 2017. “Development and Validation of a Multiclass, Multiresidue Method for Veterinary Drug Analysis in Infant Formula and Related Ingredients Using UHPLC-MS/MS.” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 65, no. 34: 7268–7287. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.7b00271.