ATTACHMENT AND LOSS: Retrospect and Prospect
John Bowlby M.D.,
Corresponding Author
John Bowlby M.D.
Honorary Consultant Psychiatrist, Tavistock Clinic, London
Tavistock Clinic, 120 Belsize Lane, London NW 3Search for more papers by this authorJohn Bowlby M.D.,
Corresponding Author
John Bowlby M.D.
Honorary Consultant Psychiatrist, Tavistock Clinic, London
Tavistock Clinic, 120 Belsize Lane, London NW 3Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
An historical sketch of the manner in which evidence has accumulated showing the ill effects of separation, loss, and maternal deprivation during the early years, and of how, in the light of this evidence, a new conceptual framework, often referred to as attachment theory, has been formulated for understanding personality development and psychopathology.
REFERENCES
- 1 Ainsworth, M. 1962. The effects of maternal deprivation: a review of findings and controversy in the context of research strategy. In Deprivation of Maternal Care: A Reassessment of Its Effects, Public Health Papers No. 14. World Health Organization, Geneva.
- 2 Ainsworth, M. 1963. The development of infant-mother interaction among the Ganda. In Determinants of Infant Behavior, Vol. 2 B. Foss, ed. John Wiley, New York.
- 3 Ainsworth, M. 1967. Infancy in Uganda: Infant Care and the Growth of Attachment. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore.
- 4 Ainsworth, M. 1969. Object relations, dependency and attachment: a theoretical review of the infant-mother relationship. Child Devlpm. 40: 969–1025.
- 5 Ainsworth, M. 1982. Attachment: retrospect and prospect. In The Place of Attachment in Human Behavior C. Parkes and J. Stevenson-Hinde, eds. Basic Books, New York.
- 6 Ainsworth, M. et al. 1978. Patterns of Attachment: Assessed in the Strange Situation and at Home. Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, N.J.
- 7 Ainsworth, M. and Wittig, B. 1969. Attachment and exploratory behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation. In Determinants of Infant Behavior. Vol. 4. B. Foss, ed. Barnes & Noble, New York.
- 8 Bender, L. 1947. Psychopathic behavior disorders in children. In Handbook of Correctional Psychology R. Lindner and R. Seliger, eds. Philosophical Library, New York.
- 9
Bender, L., and
Yarnell, H.
1941. An observation nursery.
Amer. J. Psychiat.
97: 1158–1174.
10.1176/ajp.97.5.1158 Google Scholar
- 10 Bowlby, J. 1940. The influence of early environment in the development of neurosis and neurotic character. Inter. J. Psychoanal. 21: 154–178.
- 11 Bowlby, J. 1944. Forty-four juvenile thieves: their characters and home life. Inter. J. Psychoanal. 25: 19–52, 107–127.
- 12 Bowlby, J. 1951. Maternal Care and Mental Health. Columbia University Press, New York.
- 13 Bowlby, J. 1958. The nature of the child's tie to his mother. Inter. J. Psychoanal. 39: 350–373.
- 14 Bowlby, J. 1960. Grief and mourning in infancy and early childhood. Psychoanal. Study of the Child 15: 9–52.
- 15 Bowlby, J. 1961. Processes of mourning. Inter. J. Psychoanal. 42: 317–340.
- 16 Bowlby, J. 1969. Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1: Attachment. Basic Books, New York.
- 17 Bowlby, J. 1973. Attachment and Loss, Vol. 2: Separation–Anxiety and Anger. Basic Books, New York.
- 18 Bowlby, J. 1979. Psychoanalysis as art and science. Inter. Rev. Psychoanal. 6: 3–14.
- 19 Bowlby, J. 1980. Attachment and Loss, Vol. 3: Loss–Sadness and Depression. Basic Books, New York.
- 20 Bowlby, J. 1981. Perspective: a contribution. Bull. Royal Coll. Psychiat. 5: 2–4.
- 21 Bowlby, J. 1981. Psychoanalysis as a natural science. Inter. Rev. Psychoanal. 8: 243–256.
- 22
Bretherton, I.
1980. Young children in stressful situations: the supporting role of attachment figures and unfamiliar caregivers. In Uprooting and Development G. Coelho and
P. Ahmed, eds. Plenum Press, New York.
10.1007/978-1-4684-3794-2_9 Google Scholar
- 23 Brody, S. 1981. The concepts of attachment and bonding. J. Amer. Psychoanal. Assoc. 29: 815–829.
- 24 Brown, G. and Harris, T. 1978. The Social Origins of Depression. Tavistock, London.
- 25 Burlingham, D. and Freud, A. 1942. Young Children in War-Time London. Allen & Unwin, London.
- 26 Burlingham, D. and Freud, A. 1944. Infants without Families. Allen and Unwin, London.
- 27 Burnham, D. 1965. Separation anxiety. Arch. Gen. Psychiat. 13: 346–358.
- 28 De Lozier, P. 1982. Attachment theory and child abuse. In The Place of Attachment in Human Behavior C. Parkes and J. Stevenson-Hinde, eds. Basic Books, New York.
- 29 Deutsch, H. 1937. Absence of grief. Psychoanal. Quart. 6: 12–22.
- 30 Dixon, N. 1971. Subliminal Perception: The Nature of a Controversy. McGraw-Hill, London.
- 31 Dixon, N. 1981. Preconscious Processing. John Wiley, New York.
- 32 Freud, S. 1926. Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety. In Standard Edition, Vol. 20, Hogarth Press, London.
- 33 Furman, E. 1974. A Child's Parent Dies. Yale University Press, New Haven.
- 34 George, C. and Main, M. 1979. Social interactions of young abused children: approach, avoidance and aggression. Child Devlpm. 50: 306–318.
- 35
Goldfarb, W.
1943. Infant rearing and problem behavior.
Amer. J. Orthopsychiat.
13: 249–265.
10.1111/j.1939-0025.1943.tb05996.x Google Scholar
- 36
Goldfarb, W.
1943. The effect of early institutional care on adolescent personality.
Child Devlpm.
14: 213–223.
10.2307/1125353 Google Scholar
- 37
Goldfarb, W.
1943. The effects of early institutional care on adolescent personality.
J. Exper. Ed.
12: 106.
10.1080/00220973.1943.11010296 Google Scholar
- 38 Goldfarb, W. 1955. Emotional and intellectual consequences of psychologic deprivation in infancy: a revaluation. In Psychopathology of Childhood P. Hoch and J. Zubin, eds. Grune and Stratton, New York.
- 39
Harlow, H. and
Harlow, M.
1965. The affectional systems. In Behavior of Nonhuman Primates, Vol. 2. A. Schrier,
H. Harlow and
F. Stollnitz, eds. Academic Press, New York.
10.1016/B978-1-4832-2821-1.50008-2 Google Scholar
- 40 Harlow, H. and Zimmermann, R. 1959. Affectional responses in the infant monkey. Science 130: 421.
- 41 Heinicke, C. 1956. Some effects of separating two-year-old children from their parents: a comparative study. Hum. Relat. 9: 105–176.
- 42 Heinicke, C. and Westheimer, I. 1966. Brief Separations. International Universities Press, New York.
- 43 Hinde, R. 1974. Biological Bases of Human Social Behavior. McGraw-Hill, New York.
- 44 Hinde, R. and Spencer-Booth, Y. 1971. Effects of brief separation from mother on rhesus monkeys. Science 173: 111–118.
- 45 Kernberg, O. 1980. Internal World and External Reality: Object Relations Theory Applied. Aronson, New York.
- 46 Klein, M. 1940. Mourning and its relation to manic-depressive states. In Love, Guilt and Reparation and Other Papers, 1921–1946. Seymour Lawrence/Delacorte, Boston.
- 47 Klein, M. 1981. On Mahler's autistic and symbiotic phases: an exposition and evaluation. Psychoanal. Contemp. Thought 4: 69–105.
- 48 Kliman, G. 1965. Psychological Emergencies of Childhood. Grune & Stratton, New York.
- 49 Kohut, H. 1977. The Restoration of the Self. International Universities Press, New York.
- 50 Kuhn, T. 1962. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
- 51 Kuhn, T. 1974. Second thoughts on paradigms. In The Structure of Scientific Theory F. Suppe, ed. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Ill.
- 52 Levy, D. 1937. Primary affect hunger. Amer. J. Psychiat. 94: 643–652.
- 53 Lorenz, K. 1935. Der Kumpan in der Umvelt des Vogels. J. Orn. Berl. 83. (In Instinctive Behavior, C. Schiller ed. 1957. International Universities Press, New York).
- 54 Mahler, M., Pine, F. and Bergman, A. 1975. The Psychological Birth of the Human Infant. Basic Books, New York.
- 55 Main, M. 1977. Analysis of a peculiar form of reunion behavior in some day-care children: its history and sequelae in children who are home-reared. In Social Development in Childhood: Day-Care Programs and Research R. Webb, ed. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
- 56 Marris, P. 1958. Widows and Their Families. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London.
- 57 Norman, D. 1976. Memory and Attention: Introduction to Human Information Processing ( 2nd Ed.). John Wiley, New York.
- 58 Parkes, C. 1972. Bereavement: Studies of Grief in Adult Life. International Universities Press, New York.
- 59 C. Parkes and J. Stevenson-Hinde, eds. 1982. The Place of Attachment in Human Behavior. Basic Books, New York.
- 60 Peterfreund, E. 1978. Some critical comments on psychoanalytic conceptualizations of infancy. Inter J. Psychoanal. 59: 427–441.
- 61 Provence, S. and Lipton, R. 1962. Infants in Institutions. International Universities Press, New York.
- 62 Rajecki, D., Lamb, M. and Obmascher, P. 1978. Towards a general theory of infantile attachment: a comparative review of aspects of the social bond. Behav. Brain Sci. 3: 417–464.
- 63 Raphael, B. 1982. The young child and the death of a parent. In The Place of Attachment in Human Behavior. C. Parkes and J. Stevenson-Hinde, eds. Basic Books, New York.
- 64 Robertson, J. 1952. A Two-Year-Old Goes to Hospital. New York University Film Library, New York. (Film).
- 65 Robertson, J. 1958. Going to Hospital with Mother. New York University Film Library, New York. (Film).
- 66 Robertson, J. 1970. Young Children in Hospital ( 2nd Ed.). Tavistock, London.
- 67 Robertson, J. and Bowlby, J. 1952. Responses of young children to separation from their mothers. Courrier Centre Internationale Enfance 2: 131–142.
- 68 Rutter, M. 1979. Maternal deprivation, 1972–1978: new findings, new concepts, new approaches. Child Devlpm. 50: 283–305.
- 69 M. Rutter, ed. 1980. Scientific Foundations of Developmental Psychiatry. Heinemann Medical Books, London.
- 70 Spiegel, R. 1981. Review of Loss: Sadness and Depression by John Bowlby. Amer. J. Psychother. 35: 598–600.
- 71 Spitz, R. 1945. Hospitalism: an enquiry into the genesis of psychiatric conditions in early childhood. Psychoanal. Study of the Child 1: 53.
- 72 Spitz, R. 1946. Anaclitic depression. Psychoanal. Study of the Child 2: 313–342.
- 73 Spitz, R. 1947. Grief: A Peril in Infancy. New York University Film Library, New York. (Film).
- 74 Sroufe, A. 1982. Infant-caregiver attachment and patterns of adaptation in preschool: the roots of maladaptation and competence. In Minnesota Symposium in Child Psychology M. Perlmutter, ed. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
- 75 Sroufe, A. and Waters, E. 1977. Attachment as an organizational construct. Child Devlpm. 48: 1184–1199.
- 76 Strachey, J. 1959. Editor's introduction. In Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety, Standard Edition of the Works of Sigmund Freud, Vol. 20. Hogarth Press, London.
- 77 Winnicott, D. 1960. Ego distortion in terms of true and false self. In The Maturational Process and the Facilitating Environment, D. Winnicott. International Universities Press, New York.