Principles and Applications of Computer Graphics in Medicine
Abstract
The medical domain provides excellent opportunities for the application of computer graphics, visualization and virtual environments, with the potential to help improve healthcare and bring benefits to patients. This survey paper provides a comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-art in this exciting field. It has been written from the perspective of both computer scientists and practising clinicians and documents past and current successes together with the challenges that lie ahead. The article begins with a description of the software algorithms and techniques that allow visualization of and interaction with medical data. Example applications from research projects and commercially available products are listed, including educational tools; diagnostic aids; virtual endoscopy; planning aids; guidance aids; skills training; computer augmented reality and use of high performance computing. The final section of the paper summarizes the current issues and looks ahead to future developments.
References
- 1 R. A. Robb, J. F. Greenleaf, E. L. Ritman, S. A. Johnson, J. D. Sjostrand, G. T. Herman, and E. H. Wood. Three-dimensional visualization of the intact thorax and contents: a technique for cross-sectional reconstruction from multiplanar x-ray views. Comput Biomed Res 7, 395–419, 1974.
- 2 G. T. Herman and H. K. Liu. Display of three-dimensional information in computed tomography. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1, 155–160, 1977.
- 3 R. F. McCloy and R. Stone. Virtual reality in surgery. BMJ 323, 912–915, 2001.
- 4 S. L. Dawson and J. A. Kaufman. The imperative for medical simulation. Proceedings of the IEEE 8(3): 479–483, March 1998.
- 5 J. Merald. Interventional imaging: a new speciality in between radiology and surgery. Bulletin de l'Académie Nationale de Médecine 175(7): 1079–1084, October 1991.
- 6 J. A. Martin, G. Regehr, R. Reznick, H. MacRae, J. Murnaghan, C. Hutchison and M. Brown. Objective structured assessment of technical skill (OSATS) for surgical residents. Br J Surg 84(2): 273–278, February 1997.
- 7 N. Taffinder, S. Smith, J. Jansen, B. Ardehali, R. Russell and A. Darzi. Objective measurement of surgical dexterity—validation of the Imperial College Surgical Assessment Device (ICSAD). Minimally Invasive Therapy and Allied Techniques 7(Suppl 1): 11, 1998.
- 8 European Association of Endoscopic Surgeons: Training and assessment of competence. Surg Endoscopy 8, 721–722, 1994.
- 9 H. Faulkner, G. Regehr, J. Martin and R. Reznick. Validation of an objective structured assessment of technical skill for surgical residents. Acad Med 71, 1363–1365, 1996.
- 10 C. Lathan, K. Cleary and R. Greco. Development and evaluation of a spine biopsy simulator. Studies in Health Technology & Informatics 50, 375–376, 1998.
- 11 M. Brehmer and D. A. Tolley. Validation of a bench model for endoscopic surgery in the upper urinary tract. European Urology 42(2): 175–180, 2002.
- 12 K. Moorthy, Y. Munz, S. K. Sarker and A. Darzi. Objective assessment of technical skills in surgery. BMJ 327, 1032–1037, 2003.
- 13 N. Taffinder, I. McManus, J. Jansen, R. Russell and A. Darzi. An objective assessment of surgeons' psychomotor skills: Validation of the MIST-VR laparoscopic simulator. Br J Surg 85(Suppl 1): 75, 1998.
- 14 Select-IT VEST Systems AG: Website. http://www.select-it.de, 7 April 2005.
- 15 Simbionix: Website. http://www.simbionix.com, 7 April 2005.
- 16 K. Rosenfield, J. D. Babb, C. U. Cates, M. J. Cowley, T. Feldman, A. Gallagher, W. Gray, R. Green, M. R. Jaff, K. C. Kent, K. Ouriel, G. S. Roubin, B. H. Weiner and C. J. White. Clinical competence statement on carotid stenting: training and credentialing for carotid stenting–multispecialty consensus recommendations: a report of the SCAI/SVMB/SVS writing committee to develop a clinical competence statement on carotid interventions. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 45(1): 165–174, January 2005.
- 17 P. Perona and J. Malik. Scale-space and edge detection using anisotropic diffusion. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Machine Intell 12, 629–639, 1990.
- 18 G. Gerig, R. Kikinis, O. Kübler and F. A. Jolesz. Nonlinear Anisotropic Filtering of MRI Data. IEEE Transaction on Medical Imaging 11(2): 221–232, 1992.
- 19 J. Montagnat, M. Sermesant, H. Delingette, G. Malandain and N. Ayache. Anisotropic filtering for model-based segmentation of 4D cylindrical echocardiographic images. Pattern Recognition Letters 24, 815–828, 2003.
- 20 D. L. Pham, C. Xu and J. L. Prince. Current methods in medical image segmentation. Annu Rev Biomed Eng 315–337, 2000.
- 21
J. B. T. M. Roerdink and
A. Meijster.
The watershed transform: Definitions, algorithms and parallelization strategies.
Fundamenta Informaticae
41, 187–228, 2001.
10.3233/FI-2000-411207 Google Scholar
- 22 H. K. Hahn and H.-O. Peitgen. IWT-Interactive Watershed Transform: A hierarchical method for efficient interactive and automated segmentation of multidimensional grayscale images. In Medical Imaging 2003: Image Processing, vol. 5032, SPIE, pp. 643–653, 2003.
- 23 V. Grau, A. U. J. Mewes, M. Alcaniz, R. Kikinis and S. Warfield. Improved watershed transform for medical image segmentation using prior information. IEEE Trans on Med Imaging 23(4): 447–458, 2004.
- 24 A. X. Falcao, J. K. Udupa, S. Samarasekera, S. Sharma, B. E. Hirsch and R. De Alencar. Lofufo: User-steered image segmentation paradigms: Live-wire and live-lane. Graphical Models and Image Processing 60(4): 223–260, 1998.
- 25 D. Freedman, R. J. Radke, T. Zhang, Y. Jeong and G. T. Y. Chen. Model-based multi-object segmentation via distribution matching. In Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshop, p. 11, June 2004.
- 26 S. M. Pizer, P. T. Fletcher, S. Joshi, A. Thall, J. Z. Chen, Y. Fridman, D. S. Fritsch, A. G. Gash, J. M. Glotzer, M. R. Jiroutek, C. Lu, K. E. Muller, G. Tracton, P. Yushkevich and E. L. Chaney. Deformable M-reps for 3D medical image segmentation. International Journal of Computer Vision 55(2– 3): 85–106, November 2003.
- 27 T. Cootes and C. Taylor. Statistical models of appearance for medical image analysis and computer vision. In Proc. SPIE Medical Imaging 2001, pp. 236–248.
- 28 A. Lefohn, J. Cates and R. Whitaker. Interactive, GPU-Based Level Sets for 3D Brain Tumor Segmentation. Tech. Rep. UUCS-03-004, University of Utah, School of Computing, 2003.
- 29 D. Bartz, D. Mayer, J. Fischer, S. Ley, Del A. Rio, S. Thust, C. P. Heussel, U. H. Kauczor and W. Strasser. Hybrid segmentation and exploration of the human lungs. In Proceedings of IEEE Visualization 2003, pp. 177–184.
- 30 M. P. Persoon, I. W. O. Serlie, F. H. Post, R. Truyen and F. M. Vos. Visualization of noisy and biased volume data using first and second order derivative techniques. In Proceedings of IEEE Visualization 2003, IEEE Computer Society, pp. 379–385, 2003.
- 31 G. R. Ferretti, I. Bricault and M. Coulomb. Virtual tools for imaging of the thorax. European Respiratory Journal 18, 381–392, 2001.
- 32 A. Kanitsar, R. Wegenkittl, D. Fleischmann and M. E. Gröller. Advanced curved planar reformation: Flattening of vascular structures. In Proceedings of IEEE Visualization 2003, IEEE Computer Society, pp. 43–50, 2003.
- 33 A. G. Schreyer and S. K. Warfield. 3D Image Processing: Techniques and Clinical Applications. D. Caramella and C. Bartholozzi, (Eds.), Medical Radiology—Diagnostic Imaging. Springer, 2002, ch. Surface Rendering, pp. 31–34, 2002.
- 34
W. E. Lorensen and
H. E. Cline.
Marching cubes: A high resolution 3D surface construction algorithm. In
Proceedings of the 14th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques (1987), ACM Press, pp.
163–169, 1987.
10.1145/37401.37422 Google Scholar
- 35 A. Lopes and K. Brodlie. Improving the robustness and accuracy of the marching cubes algorithm for isosurfacing. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 9, 16–29, 2003.
- 36 H. Carr, J. Snoeyink and U. Axen. Computing contour trees in all dimensions. Comput. Geom. Theory Appl. 24(2): 75–94, 2003.
- 37 Y. Livnat, H. W. Shen and C. R. Johnson. A near optimal isosurface extraction algorithm for structured and unstructured grids. IEEE Trans on Visualization and Computer Graphics 2(1): 73–84, 1996.
- 38 P. Cignoni, P. Marino, C. Montani, E. Puppo and R. Scopigno. Speeding up isosurface extraction using interval trees. IEEE Trans on Visualization and Computer Graphics 3(2): 158–170, August 1997.
- 39 U. D. Bordoloi and H.-W. Shen. Space efficient fast isosurface extraction for large datasets. In Proceedings of IEEE Visualization 2003, IEEE Computer Society, pp. 201–208, 2003.
- 40 K. W. Waters, C. S. Co and K. I. Joy. Isosurface extraction using fixed size buckets. In Eurographics-IEEE VGTC Symposium on Visualization, K. W. Brodlie, D. J. Duce and K. I. Joy, (Eds.), Eurographics Association, pp. 207–214, 2005.
- 41 M. Levoy. Display of surfaces from volume data. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications 10(2): 33–40, 1988.
- 42 S. Grimm, S. Bruckner, A. Kanitsar and E. Gröller. Memory efficient acceleration structures and techniques for CPU-based volume ray casting of large data. In Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Volume Visualization and Graphics 2004, pp. 1–8, October 2004.
- 43 L. Westover. Interactive volume rendering. In Proceedings of Volume Visualization Workshop (Chapel Hill), pp. 9–16, 1989.
- 44 J. Huang, K. Mueller, N. Shareef and R. Crawfis. Fastsplats: Optimized splatting on rectilinear grids. In Proceedings of IEEE Visualization 2000, pp. 219–226, 2000.
- 45
P. Lacroute and
M. Levoy.
Fast volume rendering using a shear-warp factorization of the viewing transformation. In
SIGGRAPH '94: Proceedings of the 21st annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques (
New York
,
NY
,
USA
), ACM Press, pp.
451–458, 1994.
10.1145/192161.192283 Google Scholar
- 46 J. Sweeney and K. Mueller. Shear-warp deluxe: the shear warp algorithm revisited. In Eurographics-IEEE VGTC Symposium on Visualization, Eurographics Association, pp. 95–104, 2002.
- 47 T. J. Cullip and U. Neumann. Accelerating Volume Reconstruction With 3D Texture Hardware. Tech. rep., University of North Carolina , Chapel Hill, NC , USA , 1994.
- 48 J. Krüger and R. Westermann. Acceleration techniques for GPU-based volume rendering. In Proceedings of IEEE Visualization 2003, IEEE Computer Society pp. 287–292, 2003.
- 49 K. Engel, M. Hadwiger, J. M. Kniss, A. E. Lefohn, C. Rezk Salama and D. Weiskopf. Real-time volume graphics. Tutorial 28 in SIGGRAPH 2004. http://www.vrvis.at/via/resources/course-volgraphics-2004/, 14 July 2005, 2004.
- 50 M. Levoy. Efficient ray tracing of volume data. Trans. Graph. ACM 9(3): 245–261, 1990.
- 51 G. Kindlmann, R. Whitaker, T. Tasdizen and T. Moller. Curvature-based transfer functions for direct volume rendering: Methods and applications. In Proceedings of IEEE Visualization 2003, IEEE Computer Society, pp. 513–520, 2003.
- 52 C. Lundstrom, P. Ljung and A. Ynnerman. Extending and simplifying transfer function design in medical volume rendering using local histograms. In Eurographics-IEEE VGTC Symposium on Visualization, K. W. Brodlie, D. J. Duce and K. I. Joy, (Eds.), EurographicsAssociation, pp. 263–270, 2005.
- 53 L. Mroz, H. Hauser and E. Gröller. Interactive high-quality maximum intensity projection. In Proceedings of EUROGRAPHICS 2000, pp. C341–C350, 2000.
- 54 K. J. Zuiderveld, A. H. J. Koning and M. A. Viergever. Techniques for speeding up high-quality perspective maximum intensity projection. Pattern Recognition Letters 15, 505–517, 1994.
- 55 G. Sakas, M. Grimm and A. Savopoulos. Optimized maximum intensity projection. In Proceedings of 5th EUROGRAPHICS Workshop on Rendering Techniques ( Dublin , Ireland ) pp. 55–63, 1995.
- 56 Y. Sato, N. Shiraga, S. Nakajima, S. Tamura and R. Kikinis. LMIP: Local maximum intensity projection—a new rendering method for vascular visualization. Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography 22(6): 912–917, 1998.
- 57 H. Hahn, B. Preim, D. Selle and H. Peitgeen. Visualization and interaction techniques for the exploration of vascular structures. IEEE Visualization, 395–402, 2001.
- 58 S. Oeltze and B. Preim. Visualization of anatomical tree structures with convolution surfaces. In Eurographics-IEEE VGTC Symposium on Visualization, Eurographics Association 2004.
- 59 P. Rheingans and D. Ebert. Volume illustration: Nonphotorealistic rendering of volume models. IEEE TVCG 7(3): 253–264, 2001.
- 60 M. Hadwiger, C. Berger and H. Hauser. High-quality two-level volume rendering of segmented data sets on consumer graphics hardware. In Proceedings of IEEE Visualization 2003, 2003, pp. 301–308.
- 61 S. Bhagavatula, P. Rheingans and M. Jardins. Discovering high level parameters for visualization design. In Eurographics-IEEE VGTC Symposium on Visualization, K. W. Brodlie, D. J. Duce and K. I. Joy, (Eds.), pp. 255–262, 2005.
- 62 S. Bruckner, S. Grimm, A. Kanitsar and M. E. Gröller. Illustrative context-preserving volume rendering. In Eurographics-IEEE VGTC Symposium on Visualization, K. W. Brodlie, D. J. Duce and K. I. Joy, (Eds.), pp. 69–76, 2005.
- 63 D. Bartz. Virtual endoscopy in research and clinical practice. Computer Graphics Forum 24(1) : 111–126, 2005.
- 64 A. Neubauer, M. Forster, R. Wegenkittl, L. Mroz and K. Bühler. Efficient display of background objects for virtual endoscopy usingflexible first-hit ray casting. In Proceedings of the Joint Eurographics—IEEE TCVG Symposium on Visualization (VisSym 2004), pp. 301–310, 2004.
- 65 M. Ferré, A. Puig and D. Tost. A framework for fusion methods and rendering techniques of multimodal volume data. Comp. Anim. Virtual Worlds 15, 63–77, 2004.
- 66 C. R. Maurer and J. M. Fitzpatrick. A review of medical image registration. In Interactive Image Guided Neurosurgery, R. J. Maciunas, (Ed.), American Association of Neurological Surgeons, pp. 17–44, 1993.
- 67 J. B. A. Maintz and M. A. Viergever. A survey of medical image registration. Medical Image Analysis 2, 1998.
- 68
J. V. Hajnal,
D. L. G. Hill and
D. J. Hawkes (Eds.): Medical Image Registration. CRC Press, 2001.
10.1201/9781420042474 Google Scholar
- 69 D. Rueckert, C. Hayes, C. Studholme, P. Summers, M. Leach and D. J. Hawkes. Non-rigid registration of breast MR images using mutual information. In First Int. Conf. First on Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted Intervention 1998.
- 70 E. R. E. Denton, L. I. Sonoda, D. Rueckert, S. C. Rankin, C. Hayes, M. Leach, D. L. G. Hill and D. J. Hawkes. Comparison and evaluation of rigid and non-rigid registration of breast MR images. Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography 23(5): 800–805, 1999.
- 71 D. J. Hawkes, L. Robinson, J. E. Crossman, H. B. Sayman, R. Mistry and M. N. Maisey. Registration and display of the combined bone scan and radiograph in the diagnosis and management of wrist injuries. European Journal of Nuclear Medicine 18, 1991.
- 72 D. J. Hawkes, C. F. Ruff, D. L. G. Hill, C. Studholme, P. J. Edwards and W. L. Wong. 3D multimodal imaging in image guided interventions. In Medical imaging: analysis of multimodality 2D/3D images, L. Beolchi and M. H. Kuhn, (Eds.), Vol. 19 of Studies in health, technology and informatics, IOS Press, Amsterdam , pp. 83–100, 1995.
- 73 D. Rueckert, L. I. Sonoda, C. Hayes, D. L. G. Hill, M. O. Leach and D. J. Hawkes. Nonrigid registration using free-form deformations: Application to breast MR images. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging 18(8): 712–721, 1999.
- 74 H. Lester and S. R. Arridge. A survey of hierarchical non-linear medical image registration. Pattern Recognition 32(1): 129–149, 1999.
- 75 J. A. Schnabel, D. Rueckert, M. Quist, J. M. Blackall, A. D. Castellano Smith, T. Hartkens, G. P. Penney, W. A. Hall, H. Liu, C. L. Truwit, F. A. Gerritsen, D. L. G. Hill and D. J. Hawkes. A generic framework for non-rigid registration based on non-uniformmulti-level free-form deformations. In Proc. Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted Intervention (MICCAI 2001), vol. 2208 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pp. 573–581, October 2001.
- 76 T. Hartkens, D. L. G. Hill, A. D. Castellano-Smith, D. J. Hawkes, C. R. Maurer Jr. A. J. Martin, W. A. Hall, H. Liu and C. L. Truwit. Measurement and analysis of brain deformation during neurosurgery. IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging 22(1): 82–92, 2003.
- 77 T. Rohlfing and C. R. Maurer Jr.. Nonrigid image registration in shared-memory multiprocessor environments with application to brains, breasts, and bees. IEEE Transactions on Information Technology in Biomedicine 7(1): 16–25, March 2003.
- 78 V. R. Mandava, J. M. Fitzpatrick, C. R. Maurer, R. K. Maciunas and S. G. Allen. Registration of multimodal volume head images via attached markers. In SPIE Medical Imaging 92: Image Processing, vol. 1652, pp. 271–282, 1992.
- 79 C. R. Maurer, J. M. Fitzpatrick, R. L. Galloway, M. Y. Wang, R. J. Maciunas and G. S. Allen. The accuracy of image-guided neurosurgery using implantable fiducialmarkers. In Proc. Computed Assisted Radiology 1995, Berlin : Springer-Verlag, pp. 1197–202, 1995.
- 80 C. R. Maurer, J. M. Fitzpatrick, M. Y. Wang, R. L. Galloway, R. J. Maciunas and G. S. Allen. Registration of head volume images using implantable fiducial markers. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging 16, 447–462, 1997.
- 81 A. C. Evans, S. Marret, L. Collins and T. M. Peters. Anatomical functional correlative analysis of the human brain using 3D imaging systems. SPIE 1092, 264–275, 1989.
- 82 S. Fang, R. Raghavan and J. T. Richtsmeier. Volume morphing methods for landmark based 3D image deformation. In Medical Imaging: Image processing, M. H. Loew and K. M. Hanson, (Eds.), vol. 2710, Bellingham , WA. SPIE, pp. 404–415, 1996.
- 83 T. Peters, B. Davey, P. Munger, R. Comeau, A. Evans and A. Olivier. Three-dimensional multimodal image-guidance for neurosurgery. IEEE Transactions on medical imaging 15(2): 121–128, 1996.
- 84 M. Betke, H. Hong and J. P. Ko. Automatic 3D registration of lung surfaces in computed tomography scans. In Fourth International Conference on Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted Intervention, Utrecht, The Netherlands , 2001.
- 85 Y. Chen and G. Medioni. Object modeling by registration of multiple range images. Image and Vision Computing 10(3): 145–155, April 1991.
- 86 P. Besl and McN. Kay. A method for registration of 3-d shapes. Trans. PAMI 14(2): 1992.
- 87 F. Maes, A. Collingnon and D. Vandermeulen. Multi-modality image registration by maximization of mutual information. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging 14–22, June 1996.
- 88 P. Viola and W. M. Wells III.. Alignment by maximization of mutual information. Int. J. of Comp. Vision 24(2): 137–154, 1997.
- 89 L. Lemieux, U. C. Wieshmann, N. F. Moran, D. R. Fish and S. D. Shorvon. The detection and significance of subtle changes in mixed-signal brain lesions by serial MRI scan matching and spatial normalization. Med. Image Anal. 2(3): 227–247, September 1998.
- 90 J. P. W. Pluim, J. B. A. Maintz and M. A. Viergever. Mutual information based registration of medical images: A survey. IEEE Trans on Medical Imaging 22(8): 986–1004, 2003.
- 91 Insight Software Consortium: Insight segmentation and registration toolkit (ITK). http://www.itk.org, 22 October 2005.
- 92 D. Rueckert and J. Schnabel. Image registration toolkit (ITK). http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/dr/software/, 22 October 2005.
- 93
T. W. Sederberg and
S. R. Parry.
Free-form deformation of solid geometric models. In
SIGGRAPH '86: Proceedings of the 13th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques (
New York
,
NY
,
USA
), ACM Press, pp.
151–160, 1986.
10.1145/15922.15903 Google Scholar
- 94 S. M. Hu, H. Zhang, C. L. Tai and J. G. Sun. Direct manipulation of ffd: efficient explicit solutions and decomposable multiple point constraints. Visual Computer 17(6): 370–379, 2001.
- 95
D. Terzopoulos.
Physically-based facial modelling, analysis and animation.
Journal of Visualization and Computer Animation
1, 73–90, 1990.
10.1002/vis.4340010208 Google Scholar
- 96
Y. Lee,
D. Terzopoulos and
K. Walters.
Realistic modeling for facial animation. In
SIGGRAPH '95: Proceedings of the 22nd annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques,
New York
,
NY
,
USA
, ACM Press, pp.
55–62, 1995.
10.1145/218380.218407 Google Scholar
- 97
R. M. Koch,
M. H. Gross,
F. R. Carls,
D. von Bü,
F. Ren,
G. Fankhauser and
Y. I. H. Parish.
Simulating facial surgery using finite element models. In
SIGGRAPH '96: Proceedings of the 23rd annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques (
New York
,
NY
,
USA
), ACM Press, pp.
421–428, 1996.
10.1145/237170.237281 Google Scholar
- 98 L. P. Nedel and D. Thalmannn. Real time muscle deformations using mass-spring systems. In Proceedings of CGI'98, IEEE Computer SocietyPress, pp. 156–165, 1998.
- 99 U. Kühnapfel, H. K. C. Akmak and H. Maass. Endoscopic surgery training using virtual reality and deformable tissue simulation. Computers & Graphics 24, 671–682, 2000.
- 100 D. Bielser, V. A. Maiwald and M. H. Gross. Interactive cuts through 3-dimensional soft tissue. Computer Graphics Forum 18(3): C31–C38, 1999.
- 101 M. Hauth and O. Etzmuss. A high performance solver for the animation of deformable objects using advanced numerical methods. Computer Graphics Forum 20(3): C319–C328, 2001.
- 102 A. Liu, F. Tendick and N. Kaufmann. A tutorial on surgical simulation: Past, present, and future. Tutorial in Medicine Meets Virtual Reality 2002 Conference, See http://www.simcen.org/mmvr2002/index.html, 13 July 2005, January 2002.
- 103 S. F. Frisken-Gibson. Using linked volumes to model object collisions, deformation, cutting, carving, and joining. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 5(4): 1999, pp. 333–348.
- 104
S. F. Gibson.
3D chainmail: a fast algorithm for deforming volumetric objects. In
Proceedings of the 1997 Symposium on Interactive 3D graphics (
Providence
,
Rhode Island
,
United States
), ACM Press, pp.
149–154, 1997.
10.1145/253284.253324 Google Scholar
- 105 S. F. Gibson. Linked Volumetric Objects Physics based Modeling. Tech. rep., Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories , http://www.merl.comNovember 1997.
- 106 M. A. Schill, S. F. F. Gibson, H. J. Bender and R. Manner. Biomechanical simulation of the vitreous humor in the eye using anenhanced chainmail algorithm. In Proceedings Medical Image Computation and Computer Assisted Interventions (MICCAI), pp. 679–687, 1998.
- 107 Y. Li and K. Brodlie. Soft object modelling with generalised chainmail—extending the boundaries of web-based graphics. Computer Graphics Forum 22(4): 717–727, 2003.
- 108
M. Bro-Nielsen and
S. Cotin.
Real-time volumetric deformable models for surgery simulation using finite elements and condensation.
Computer Graphics Forum
15(3): 57–66, 1996.
10.1111/1467-8659.1530057 Google Scholar
- 109 S. Zachow, E. Gladiline, H. C. Hege and P. Deuflhard. Finite-element simulation of soft tissue deformation. In Proceedings of Computer Assisted Radiology and Surgery, CARS 2000, San Francisco , vol. 1214 of International Congress Series, pp. 23–28, 2005.
- 110 J. Berkley, G. Turkiyyah, D. Berg, M. Ganter and S. Weghorst. Real-time finite element modeling for surgery simulation: anapplication to virtual suturing. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 10(3): 314–325, MayJune 2004.
- 111 P. Cignoni, F. Ganovelli and R. Scopigno. Introducing multi resolution representation in deformable modeling. In SCCG , pp. 149–158, April 1999.
- 112 X. M. Wu. Adaptive nonlinear finite elements for deformable body simulation using dynamic progressive meshes. In Eurographics'01, pp. 439–448, 2001.
- 113
C. Paloc,
F. Bello,
R. I. Kitney and
A. Darzi.
Online multiresolution volumetric mass spring model for real time soft tissue deformation. In
Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted Intervention MICCAI 2002 (
Tokyo
,
Japan
), no. 2489 in Lecture Notes in ComputerScience, pp.
219–226, 2002.
10.1007/3-540-45787-9_28 Google Scholar
- 114 M. Teschner, S. Kimmerle, B. Heidelberger, G. Zachmann, L. Raghupathi, A. Fuhrmann, P. M. Cani, F. Faure, N. Magenat-Thalmann, W. Strasser and P. Volino. Collision detection for deformable objects. Computer Graphics Forum 24(1): 61–81, 2005.
- 115 A. Witkin and D. Baraff. Physically based modeling, 2001. Online SIGGRAPH tutorial notes, available at http://www.pixar.com/companyinfo/research/pbm2001/, 13 July 2005.
- 116 A. Nealen, M. Muller, R. Keiser, E. Boxerman and M. Carlson. Physically based deformable models in computer graphics. In Eurographics 2005 State of the Art Report 2005.
- 117 Zuse Institute Berlin: ZIB. Computer assisted surgery. http://www.zib.de/visual/projects/cas/cas-gallery.en.html, 25 October 2005.
- 118 A. Westermark, S. Zachow and B. L. Eppley. Three-dimensional osteotomy planning in maxillofacial surgery including soft tissue prediction. Journal of Craniofacial Surgery 16(1): 100–104, January 2005.
- 119 T. Chanthasopeephan, J. P. Desai and A. C. W. Lau. Study of soft tissue cutting forces and cutting speeds. In Medicine Meets Virtual Reality Conference (MMVR 12) ( Newport Beach , California , IOS Press, pp. 56–62, January 2004.
- 120
S. P. DiMaio and
S. E. Salcudean.
Needle insertion modelling for the interactive simulation of percutaneous procedures. In
Medical Image Computing & Computer-Assisted Intervention MICCAI 2002 (
Tokyo
,
Japan
) no. 2489 in Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pp.
253–260, September 2002.
10.1007/3-540-45787-9_32 Google Scholar
- 121 H. Kataoka, W. Toshikatsu, C. Kiyoyuki, M. Kazuyuki, C. Simone and A. M. Okamura. Measurement of the tip and friction force acting on a needle during penetration. In Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted Intervention MICCAI 2002 ( Tokyo , Japan ), no. 2489 in Lecture Notes inComputer Science, pp. 216–223, Sept. 2002.
- 122 I. Brouwer, J. Ustin, L. Bentley, A. Sherman, N. Dhruv and F. Tendicki. Measuring in vivo animal soft tissue properties for haptic modellingin surgical simulation. In Medicine Meets Virtual Reality J. D. Westwood et al. (Eds.), IOS Press, pp. 69–74, 2001.
- 123 V. K. Peter, J. Ward, K. Sherman, R. Phillips and D. Wills. Force torque measurements during a routine knee arthroscopy: in vivostudy. In EFORT 6th Congress, Helsinki , Finland , June 2003.
- 124 A. E. Healey, J. Evans, M. Murphy, D. A. Gould, R. Phillips, J. Ward, N. W. John, K. W. Brodlie, A. Bulpit, N. Chalmers, D. Groves, F. Hatfield, T. How, B. M. Diaz, M. Farrell, D. Kessel and F. Bello. Challenges realising effective radiological interventional virtualenvironments: The CRaIVE approach. In Medicine Meets Virtual Reality Conference (MMVR 12) ( Newport Beach , California ), IOS Press, pp. 127–129, January 2004.
- 125 A. E. Healey, J. C. Evans, M. G. Murphy, S. Powell, T. V. How, B. M. Diaz and D. A. Gould. In vivo force during arterial interventional radiology needle puncture procedures. In Medicine Meets Virtual Reality Conference (MMVR 13), Long Beach , California , IOS Press, pp. 178–184, January 2005.
- 126 C. Simone and A. M. Okamura. Modelling of needle insertion forces for robot-assisted percutaneoustherapy. In Proceedings of the 2002 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Washington DC , pp. 2085–2091, May 2002.
- 127 K. H. Höhne, B. Pflesser, A. Pommert, M. Riemer, T. Schiemann, R. Schubert and U. Tiede. A new representation of knowledge concerning human anatomy and function. Nat Med 1(6): 506–511, June 1995.
- 128 National Library of Medicine: The visible human project website. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/visible/, 21 July 2005.
- 129 S. X. Zhang, P. A. Heng, Z. J. Liu, L. W. Tan, M. G. Qiu, Q. Y. Li, R. X. Liao, K. Li, G. Y. Cui, Y. L. Guo, X. P. Yang, G. J. Liu, J. L. Shan, J. J. Liu, W. G. Zhang, X. H. Chen, J. H. Chen, J. Wang, W. Chen, N. Lu, J. You, X. L. Pang, H. Xiao, Y. M. Xie and J. C. Cheng. The chinese visible human (cvh) datasets incorporate technical andimaging advances on earlier digital humans. Journal of Anatomy 204(3): 165–173, March 2004.
- 130 J. S. Park, M. S. Chung, S. B. Hwang, Y. S. Lee, D. Har-H. and H. S. Park. Visible korean human: Improved serially sectioned images of the entire body. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging 24(3): 352–360, March 2005.
- 131 Voxel-man: Website. http://voxel-man.de/simulator-other-vm.htm, 17 July 2005.
- 132 V. Spitzer, G. Spitzer, C. Lee, K. Reinig, L. Granas, K. Graus and P. Smyth. VH Dissector: a platform for curriculum development and presentation for the anatomical arts and sciences. In Medicine Meets Vitual Reality 12 ( Newport Beach , California ), IOS Press, pp. 127–129, January 2004.
- 133 S. Napel, G. D. Rubin and R. B. Jeffrey. STS-MIP: A New Reconstruction Technique for CT of the Chest. Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography 17(5): 832–838, 1993.
- 134 A. J. Megibow. Three-D offers workflow gains, new diagnostic options. Diagnostic Imaging 83–93, November 2002.
- 135 R. A. Robb. Virtual (computed) endoscopy: Development and evaluation using the visible human datasets. Presented at the Visible Human Project Conference, Bethesda , USA . http://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/visible/vhp_conf/robb/robb_pap.htm, October 1996.
- 136 S. Haker, S. Angenent, A. Tannenbaum and R. Kikinis. Nondistorting flattening maps and the 3D visualization of colon ctimages. IEEE Trans. on Medical Imaging 19, 665–670, 2000.
- 137 C. Seemann. Hybrid 3D visualization of the chest and virtual endoscopy of the tracheobronchial system: Possibilities and limitations of clinical applications. Lung Cancer 32(3): 237–246, 2001.
- 138 P. Rogalla, M. Werner-Rustner, A. Huitema, A. Van Est, N. Meiri and B. Hamm. Virtual endoscopy of the small bowel: Phantom study and preliminary clinical results. European Radiology 8, 563–567, 1998.
- 139 D. Vining and S. Aquino. Virtual bronchoscopy. Clin Chest Med 20(4): 725–730, 1999.
- 140 C. Kay, D. Kulling, R. Hawes, J. Young and P. Cotton. Virtual endoscopy—comparison with colonoscopy in the detection of space-occupying lesions of the colon. Endoscopy 32(3): 226–232, 2000.
- 141 R. Summers, P. Choyke, N. Patronas, E. Tucker, B. Wise, M. Busse, Brewer Jr. H. and R. Shamburek. Mr virtual angioscopy of thoracic aortic atherosclerosis inhomozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. J Comput Assist Tomogr 25(3): 371–377, 2001.
- 142 H. M. Fenlon, D. P. Nunes, Scrhroy III P. C., M. A. Barish, P. D. Clarke and J. T. Ferrucci. A comparison of virtual and conventional colonoscopy for the detection of colorectal polyps. The New England Journal of Medicine 341(20): 1496–1503, 1999.
- 143 P. J. Pickhardt, J. R. Choi, I. Hwang, J. A. Butler, M. L. Puckett, H. A. Hildebrandt, R. K. Wong, P. A. Nugent, P. A. Mysliwiec and W. R. Schindler. Computed tomographic virtual colonoscopy to screen for colorectalneoplasia in asymptomatic adults. The New England Journal of Medicine 349(23): 2191–2200, December 2003.
- 144 VisLab: Website. http://www.cs.sunysb.edu/vislab/projects/colonoscopy/, 20 July 2005.
- 145 D. A. Nicholson. Virtual colonoscopy versus fibre optic colonoscopy. The Research Findings Register. Summary number 930, December 2002. http://www.ReFeR.nhs.uk/ViewRecord.asp?ID=930, 13 July 2005.
- 146 E. G. McFarland, G. Wang, J. A. Brink, D. M. Balfe, J. P. Heiken and M. W. Vannier. Spiral computed tomographic colonography: Determination of the central axis and digital unravelling of the colon. Acad Radiol 4, 367–373, 1997.
- 147 O. Konrad-Verse, B. Preim and A. Littmann. Virtual resection with a deformable cutting plane. In Proceedings Simulation and Visualization, pp. 203–214, 2004.
- 148 B. Preim, D. Selle, W. Spindler, K. J. Oldhafer and H. Peitgen. Interaction techniques and vessel analysis for preoperative planning in liver surgery. In Proceedings Medical Image Computation and Computer Assisted Interventions (MICCAI), pp. 608–617, 2000.
- 149 B. Reitinger, A. Bornik, R. Beichel, G. Werkgartner and E. Sorantin. Tools for augmented reality based liver resection planning. In Medical Imaging 2004: Visualization, Image-Guided Procedures, and Display ( San Diego , L. R. Galloway, (Ed.), vol. 5367 of Proceedings of SPIE, pp. 88–99, Febuary 2004.
- 150 R. C. Splechtna, A. L. Fuhrmann and R. Wegenkittl. ARAS—Augmented Reality Aided Surgery System Description. Vrvis technical report, VRVis Research Center , Austria , 2002.
- 151 F. Gebhard (Ed.): Special issue on CAOS and the integrated OR, vol. 35 of Injury. Elsevier, June 2004.
- 152 K. Montgomery, M. Stephanides, S. Schendel and M. Ross. User Interface Paradigms for VR-based Surgical Planning. Tech. rep., Biocomputation Center, Stanford University , 2001.
- 153 J. Rosenman, G. Sherouse, H. Fuchs, S. Pizer, A. Skinner, C. Mosher, K. Novins and J. Tepper. Three-dimensional display techniques in radiation therapy treatment planning. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 16, 263–269, 1989.
- 154 T. Schiemann, B. Dippold, R. Schmidt, A. Pommert, M. Riemer, R. Schubert, U. Tiede and K. H. Höhne. 3D visualization for radiotherapy treatment planning. Computer Assisted Radiology 669–675, 1993.
- 155 J. A. Purdy. 3D treatment planning and intensity-modulated radiation therapy. Oncology (Huntingt) 13(10) [Suppl], 5 October 1999: 155–168.
- 156 Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy Collaborative Working Group: Intensity-modulated radiotherapy: current status and issues of interest. Int. J. Radiation Oncology Biol. Phys 51 (4): 880–914, 2001.
- 157 U. Mock, D. Georg, J. Bogner, T. Auberger and R. Potter. Treatment planning comparison of conventional, 3D conformal, and intensity-modulated photon (IMRT) and proton therapy for paranasal sinuscarcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys, 58(1): 147–154, January 2004.
- 158 R. Phillips, J. Ward and A. Beavis. Immersive visualization training of radiotherapy treatment. In Medicine Meets Virtual Reality Conference (MMVR 13) ( LongBeach , California ), IOS Press, pp. 390–396, January 2005.
- 159 R. S. Mezrich. Guest editorial, image-guided surgery. Academic Radiology 8, 2001.
- 160 J. W. Haller, T. C. Ryken, T. A. Gallagher and M. W. Vannier. Image guided therapy: Infrastructure for practical applications. Academic Radiology 8(9): 888–897, September 2001.
- 161 Tyco Healthcare Group: Website of Radionics http://www.radionics.com, 30 January 2004.
- 162 Computer Motion Inc. Website. http://www.computermotion.com, 31 January 2004.
- 163 BrainLAB GmbH. Website. http://www.brainlab.com/, 7 July 2005.
- 164 D. L. G. Hill, C. R. Maurer, R. J. Maciunas, J. A. Barwise, J. M. Fitzpatrick and M. Y. Wang. Measurement of intraoperative brain surface deformation under acraniotomy. Neurosurgery 43, 514–528, 1998.
- 165 G. R. Sutherland, T. Kaibara and D. F. Louw. Intraoperative magnetic resonance: An inflection point inneurosurgery Techniques in Neurosurgery 7(4): 246–251, 2002.
- 166 K. Rosendahl, O. G. Aasland, A. Aslaksen, A. Nordby, K. Brabrand and V. Akre. How is the specialist training in radiology Tidsskrift for Den Norske Laegeforening 120(19): 2289–2292, August 2000.
- 167 M. Bridges and D. L. Diamond. The financial impact of training surgical residents in the operating room. Am J Surg 177, 28–32, 1999.
- 168 C. K. Chong, T. V. How, R. A. Black, A. P. Shortland and P. L. Harris. Development of a simulator for endovascular repair of abdominalaortic aneurysms. Ann Biomed Eng 26(5): 798–802, SeptemberOctober 1998.
- 169 A. Lunderquist, K. Ivancev, S. Wallace, I. Enge, F. Laerum and A. N. Kolbenstvedt. The acquisition of skills in interventional radiology by supervised training on animal models: a three year multicentre experience. Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiology 18(4): 209–211, JulyAugust 1995.
- 170 R. F. Dondelinger, M. P. Ghysels, D. Brisbois, E. Donkers, F. R. Snaps, J. Saunders and J. Deviere. Relevant radiological anatomy of the pig as a training model in interventional radiology. European Radiology 8(7): 1254–1273, 1998.
- 171 N. E. Seymour, A. G. Gallagher, S. A. Roman, M. K. O'Brien, K. V. Bansal, D. K. Andersen and R. M. Satava. Virtual reality training improves operating room performance: results of a randomized, double-blinded study. Annals of Surgery 236(4): 458–464, 2002.
- 172 A. Dodd, M. Riding and N. W. John. Building realistic virtual environments using java and vrml. In Third Irish Workshop on Computer Graphics, Dublin , Ireland , pp. 53–61, 2002.
- 173 K. Moorthy, M. Mansoori, F. Bello, J. Hance, S. Undre, Y. Munz and A. Darzy. Evaluation of the benefit of VR simulation in a multi-media web-based educational tool. In Medicine Meets Vitual Reality 12 ( Newport Beach , California ), IOS Press, pp. 247–252, January 2004.
- 174 R. Sedlack and J. Kolars. Computer simulator training enhances the competency of gastroenterology fellows at colonoscopy: Results of a pilot study. American Journal of Gastroenterology 99(1): 33–37, 2004.
- 175 R. Rowe and R. Cohen. An evaluation of a virtual reality airway simulator. Anesthesia & Analgesia 95(1): 62–66, 2002.
- 176 F. Dech, Z. Ali and J. C. Silverstein. Manipulation of volumetric patient data in a distributed virtual reality environment. In Medicine Meets Virtual Reality 2001.
- 177 A. Chahadia, F. Dech, Z. Ali and J. C. Silverstein. Autocolorization of three dimensional radiological data. In Medicine Meets Virtual Reality, J. D. Westwood, et al., (Eds.), IOS Press, pp. 90–96, 2001.
- 178 M. Mastrangelo, G. Adrales, J. Stich, J. Hoskins, D. Witzke, U. Chu Garrison, C. Weiss, M. Nicholls, L. Munch, L. Johnston, K. Reddy, D. Ranjan, Buck and A. Park. Enhanced preoperative planning for laparoscopic donor nephrectomy via3-d image processing. Presented at the 8th World Congress of Endoscopic Surgery. New York , March 2002.
- 179 U. Höfer, T. Langen, J. Nziki, F. Zeitler, J. Hesser, U. Müller, W. Voelker and R. Männer. Cathi—catheter instruction system. In Proc. Computer Assisted Radiology and Surgery Paris , pp. 101–106, 2002.
- 180 A. Zorcolo, E. Gobetti and P. Piero. Catheter insertion simulation with combined visual and haptic feedback. In Proc. of First Phantom Users Research Symposium May 1999.
- 181 Immersion Corporation: Website. http://www.immersion.com, 17 May, 2004.
- 182 Medical Simulation Corporation: Website. http://www.medsimulation.com/, 7 April 2005.
- 183 N. W. John, M. Riding, N. I. Phillips, S. Mackay, L. Steineke, B. Fontaine, G. Reitmayr, V. Valencic, N. Zimic, A. Emmen, E. Manolakaki and D. Theodoros. Web-based surgical educational tools. In Medicine Meets Virtual Reality 2001, Studies in Health Technology and Informatics, Vol. 81, IOS Press, pp. 212–217.
- 184 K. Moorthy, M. Jiwanji, J. Shah, F. Bello, Y. Munzy and A. Darzi. Validation of a web based training tool for lumbar puncture. In Medicine Meets Vitual Reality 11, J. D. Westwood et al., (Eds.), IOS press, pp. 219–225, 2003.
- 185 Microvision: Website. http://www.mvis.com, 30 January 2004.
- 186 R. Yamanaka, K. Yamamoto, N. Handa and H. Yoshikura. A 3D display with linearly moving mirror to reflect a series of 3D cross sections and its application to non-invasive angiography. Transactions on Medical Imaging 7(3): 193–197, September 1988.
- 187 R. T. Azuma. A survey of augmented reality. Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments 6(4): 355–385, August 1997.
- 188 M. Figl, W. Birkfellner, W. J. Hummel, R. Hanel, P. Homolka, F. Watzinger, F. Wanschitz, R. Ewers and H. Bergmann. Current status of the varioscope AR, a head-mounted operating microscope for computer-aided surgery. In Proc. of ISAR '01—The Second IEEE and ACM International Symposium on Augmented Reality, New York , NY , pp. 20–29, October 2001.
- 189 F. Sauer, A. Khamene, B. Bascle, L. Schinunang, F. Wenzel and S. Vogt. Augmented reality visualization of ultrasound images: Systemdescription, calibration, and features. In ISAR '01: Proceedings of the IEEE and ACM International Symposium on Augmented Reality (ISAR'01) ( Washington , DC , USA , IEEE Computer Society , p. 30, 2001.
- 190 CSIRO. The CSIRO haptic workbench. http://www.ict.csiro.au/page.php?did=25, 25 October 2005.
- 191 Reachin AB: Website. http://www.reachin.se, 25 October 2005.
- 192 EVL: PARIS(TM) debuts at SC'02 with haptic medical demo. http://www.evl.uic.edu/core.php?mod=4&type=4&indi=181, 25 October 2005.
- 193 B. Schwald, H. Seibert and T. Weller. A flexible tracking concept applied to medical scenarios using an arwindow. In ISMAR '02: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR'02) ( Washington , DC , USA ), IEEE Computer Society , p. 261, 2002.
- 194 J. Fischer, M. Neff, D. Freudenstein and D. Bartz. Medical augmented reality based on commercial image guided surgery. In Proceedings of Eurographics Symposium on Virtual Environments (EGVE), pp. 83–86, 2004.
- 195 D. Dey, P. J. Slomka, G. G. Gobbi and T. M. Peters. Mixed reality merging of endoscopic images and 3-d surfaces. In Proceedings of Medical Image Computation and Computer Assisted Interventions (MICCAI), pp. 796–803, 2000.
- 196 J. Fischer, D. Bartz and W. Strasser. Occlusion handling for medical augmented reality using a volume tricphantom model. In VRST '04: Proceedings of the ACM symposium on Virtualreality software and technology ( New York , NY , USA ), ACM Press, pp. 174–177, 2004.
- 197 W. Lorensen, H. Cline, R. Kikinis, D. Altobelli, L. Gleason and F. Jolesz. Enhancing reality in the operating room. In Proceedings of the 1993 IEEE Visualisation Conference, pp. 410–415, 1993.
- 198 M. Bajura, H. Fuchs and R. Ohbuchi. Merging virtual objects with the real world: seeing ultrasound imagery within the patient. In Proceedings of the 19th Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques, ACM Press, pp. 203–210, July 1992.
- 199 J. Ackerman. UNC Ultrasound/Medical Augmented Reality Research, http://www.cs.unc.edu/us, January 2004.
- 200 H. Fuchs, M. A. Livingston, R. Raskar, D. Colucci, K. Keller, A. State, J. R. Crawford, P. Rademacher, S. H. Drake and A. A. Meyer. Augmented reality visualization for laparoscopic surgery. In Proceedings of 1st International Conference on Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted Intervention, USA October 1998.
- 201 A. State, M. A. Livingston, W. F. Garrett, G. Hirota, M. C. Whitton, E. D. Pisano and H. Fuchs. Technologies for augmented reality systems: realizing ultrasound-guided needle biopsies. In Proceedings of the 23rd annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques), ACM Press, pp. 439–446, 1996.
- 202 P. J. Edwards, A. P. King, C. R. Jr. Maurer, D. A. De Cunha, D. J. Hawkes, D. L. G. Hill, R. P. Gaston, M. R. Fenlon, A. Jusczyzck, A. J. Strong, C. L. Chandler and M. J. Gleeson. Design and evaluation of a system for microscope-assisted guided interventions (magi). IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging 19(11): 1082–1093, November 2000.
- 203 A. P. King, P. Edwards, C. R. Jr. Maurer, D. A. De Cunha, R. P. Gaston, D. L. G. Hill, D. J. Hawkes, M. R. Fenlon, A. J. Strong, T. C. S. Cox and M. J. Gleeson. Stereo augmented reality in the surgical microscope. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 9(4): 360–368, 2000.
- 204 T. Hirsch. MEDical Augmented Reality for PAtients. http://www.medarpa.de/englisch/index.html, 30 May 2004.
- 205
M. Meissner,
U. Hoffmann and
W. Strasser.
Enabling classification and shading for 3D texture mapping based volume rendering using Open GL and extensions. In
VIS '99: Proceedings of the conference on Visualization '99 (
Los Alamitos
,
CA
,
USA
, IEEE Computer Society Press, pp. 207–214, 1999.
10.1109/VISUAL.1999.809889 Google Scholar
- 206
C. Rezk-Salama,
K. Engel,
M. Bauer,
G. Greiner and
T. Ertl.
Interactive volume on standard pc graphics hardware using multi-textures and multi-stage rasterization. In
HWWS '00: Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH/EUROGRAPHICS workshop on Graphics hardware (
New York
,
NY
,
USA
, ACM Press), pp. 109–118, 2000.
10.1145/346876.348238 Google Scholar
- 207 S. Roettger, S. Guthe, D. Weiskopf, T. Ertl and W. Strasser. Smart hardware accelerated volume rendering. In Joint Eurographics IEEE TCVG Symposium on Visualization pp. 231–238, 2003.
- 208 S. Guthe, M. Wand, J. Gonser and W. Strasser. Interactive rendering of large volume data sets. In Proceedings IEEE Visualization pp. 53–60, 2002.
- 209 H. Pfister and A. Kaufman. Cube-4—a scalable architecture for real-time volume rendering. In Proc. ACM/IEEE Symp. on Volume Rendering, pp. 47–54, 1996.
- 210 Tera Recon, Inc.: Website. http://www.terarecon.com, 31 January 2004.
- 211 H. Pfister, J. Hardenbergh, J. Knittel, H. Lauer and L. Seiler. The volumepro real-time ray-casting system. In Proceedings of the 26th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques ACM Press/Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., pp. 251–260, 1999.
- 212 P. Sloot and A. Hoekstra. Virtual vascular surgery on the grid. ERCIM News 59 , 2004.
- 213 D. Y. Yun, H. C. Garcia, S. K. Mun, J. E. Rogers, W. G. Tohme, W. E. Carlson, S. May and R. Yagel. 3D volume visualization in remote radiation treatment planning. In Proc. SPIE Vol. 2656, Visual Data Exploration and Analysis III G. G. Grinstein and R. F. Erbacher, (Eds.), pp. 23–32, 1996.
- 214 SGI: OpenGL Vizserver http://www.sgi.com/software/vizserver/ 31 January 2004.
- 215 N. W. John, R. F. McCloy and S. Herrman. Interrogation of patient data delivered to the operating theat reduring hepato-pancreatic surgery using high performance computing. Computer Aided Surgery 9(6): 235–242, 2004.
