Critical Review
An Overview of Zoonotic Disease Outbreaks and its Forensic Management Over Time
Isa Serrano Ph.D.,
Diana Gomes MSc,
David Ramilo Ph.D.,
Maria Teresa Rebelo Ph.D.,
Isabel Pereira da Fonseca Ph.D.,
Anabela Moreira Ph.D.,
Manuela Oliveira Ph.D.,
Isa Serrano Ph.D.
Authors contributed equally.Search for more papers by this authorDiana Gomes MSc
Authors contributed equally.Search for more papers by this authorDavid Ramilo Ph.D.
CIISA - Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal
Search for more papers by this authorMaria Teresa Rebelo Ph.D.
Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa e Centro de Estudos do Ambiente e do Mar (CESAM), Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
Search for more papers by this authorIsabel Pereira da Fonseca Ph.D.
CIISA - Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal
Search for more papers by this authorAnabela Moreira Ph.D.
CIISA - Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Manuela Oliveira Ph.D.
CIISA - Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal
Corresponding author: Manuela Oliveira, Ph.D. E-mail: [email protected]Search for more papers by this authorIsa Serrano Ph.D.,
Diana Gomes MSc,
David Ramilo Ph.D.,
Maria Teresa Rebelo Ph.D.,
Isabel Pereira da Fonseca Ph.D.,
Anabela Moreira Ph.D.,
Manuela Oliveira Ph.D.,
Isa Serrano Ph.D.
Authors contributed equally.Search for more papers by this authorDiana Gomes MSc
Authors contributed equally.Search for more papers by this authorDavid Ramilo Ph.D.
CIISA - Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal
Search for more papers by this authorMaria Teresa Rebelo Ph.D.
Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa e Centro de Estudos do Ambiente e do Mar (CESAM), Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
Search for more papers by this authorIsabel Pereira da Fonseca Ph.D.
CIISA - Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal
Search for more papers by this authorAnabela Moreira Ph.D.
CIISA - Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Manuela Oliveira Ph.D.
CIISA - Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal
Corresponding author: Manuela Oliveira, Ph.D. E-mail: [email protected]Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
Most emerging or re-emerging infections are vector-borne or zoonotic and can be disseminated worldwide by infected humans or animals. They are a major public health problem and cause a great impact on economy. Zoonotic outbreaks began to be characterized in the 90s, after the creation of Europol and the FBI. Such investigations are carried by forensic pathologists and other specialists to determine whether an outbreak is natural or deliberate. This review will discuss ten zoonotic outbreaks nonrelated to wars focusing on forensic management. In conclusion, some points should be highlighted in the management of a zoonotic outbreak: (i) its diagnosis and detection by forensic pathologists and the coordination of efforts between other specialists are key factors; (ii) communication guidelines and an efficient healthcare system are crucial for any emergency response; (iii) biosafety of all specialists involved must be guaranteed.
References
- 1 World Health Organization. Report of the WHO/FAO/OIE joint consultation on emerging zoonotic diseases in collaboration with the Health Council of the Netherlands. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2004.
- 2McEwen SA, Wilson TM, Ashford DA, Heegaard ED, Kournikakis B. Microbial forensics for natural and intentional incidents of infectious disease involving animals. Rev Sci Tech 2006; 25(1): 329–39.
- 3Frentzel H, Menrath A, Tomuzia K, Braeunig J, Appel B. Decontamination of high-risk animal and zoonotic pathogens. Biosecur Bioterror 2013; 11(Suppl 1): S102–14.
- 4Galloway SE, Petzing SR, Young CG. Reassessing biological threats: implications for cooperative mitigation strategies. Front Public Health 2015; 3: 251.
- 5 World Health Organization and Global Partnership to Roll Back Malaria. Using climate to predict infectious disease outbreaks: a review. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2004.
- 6Jansen HJ, Breeveld FJ, Stijnis C, Grobusch MP. Biological warfare, bioterrorism, and biocrime. Clin Microbiol Infect 2014; 20(6): 488–96.
- 7Deflem M. Europol and the policing of international terrorism: counterterrorism in a global perspective. Justice Q 2006; 23(3): 336–59.
- 8Drewer D, Ellermann J. May the (well-balanced) force be with us! The launch of the European Counter Terrorism Centre (ECTC). CLSR 2016; 32(2): 195–204.
- 9 National Research Council. Science needs for microbial forensics: developing initial international research priorities. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2014.
- 10Kuiper I. Microbial forensics: next-generation sequencing as catalyst: the use of new sequencing technologies to analyze whole microbial communities could become a powerful tool for forensic and criminal investigations. EMBO Rep 2016; 17(8): 1085–7.
- 11Schmedes SE, Sajantila A, Budowle B. Expansion of microbial forensics. J Clin Microbiol 2016; 54(8): 1964–74.
- 12Taylor LH, Latham SM, Woolhouse ME. Risk factors for human disease emergence. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2001; 356(1411): 983–9.
- 13 Scientific Working Group on Microbial Genetics and Forensics. Quality assurance guidelines for laboratories performing microbial forensic work. Forensic Sci Commun 2003; 5(4): https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/about-us/lab/forensic-science-communications/fsc/oct2003/standards-and-guidelines/2003_10_guide01.htm (accessed January 30, 2019).
- 14 National Research Council. Countering agricultural bioterrorism. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2003.
- 15Koczura R, Kaznowski A, Mickiewicz A. The potential impact of using biological weapons against livestock and crops. ASA Newsl 2004; 04–6(105): 26–8.
- 16Khan AS. Public health preparedness and response in the USA since 9/11: a national health security imperative. Lancet 2011; 378(9794): 953–6.
- 17Dembek ZF, Kortepeter MG, Pavlin JA. Discernment between deliberate and natural infectious disease outbreaks. Epidemiol Infect 2007; 135(3): 353–71.
- 18Keim P. Microbial forensics: a scientific assessment. Washington, DC: American Academy of Microbiology, 2003.
- 19Meselson M, Guillemin J, Hugh-Jones M, Langmuir A, Popova I, Shelokov A, et al. The Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak of 1979. Science 1994; 266(5188): 1202–8.
- 20Franz DR, Jahrling PB, Friedlander AM, McClain DJ, Hoover DL, Bryne WR, et al. Clinical recognition and management of patients exposed to biological warfare agents. JAMA 1997; 278(5): 399–411.
- 21 Emergency preparedness and response: bioterrorism agents/diseases. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017; https://emergency.cdc.gov/agent/agentlist-category.asp (accessed November 2, 2018).
- 22Abramova FA, Grinberg LM, Yampolskaya OV, Walker DH. Pathology of inhalational anthrax in 42 cases from the Sverdlovsk outbreak of 1979. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993; 90(6): 2291–4.
- 23Jackson PJ, Hugh-Jones ME, Adair DM, Green G, Hill KK, Kuske CR, et al. PCR analysis of tissue samples from the 1979 Sverdlovsk anthrax victims: the presence of multiple Bacillus anthracis strains in different victims. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998; 95(3): 1224–9.
- 24Torok TJ, Tauxe RV, Wise RP, Livengood JR, Sokolow R, Mauvais S, et al. A large community outbreak of salmonellosis caused by intentional contamination of restaurant salad bars. JAMA 1997; 278(5): 389–95.
- 25Carus WS. Bioterrorism and biocrimes: the illicit use of Biological agents since 1900. Washington, DC: Center for Counterproliferation Research, National Defense University, 2001.
10.21236/ADA402108 Google Scholar
- 26 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome–United States, 1993. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1994; 43(3): 45–8.
- 27Nolte KB, Feddersen RM, Foucar K, Zaki SR, Koster FT, Madar D, et al. Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in the United States: a pathological description of a disease caused by a new agent. Hum Pathol 1995; 26(1): 110–20.
- 28Zaki SR, Greer PW, Coffield LM, Goldsmith CS, Nolte KB, Foucar K, et al. Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Pathogenesis of an emerging infectious disease. Am J Pathol 1995; 146(3): 552–79.
- 29Duchin JS, Koster FT, Peters CJ, Simpson GL, Tempest B, Zaki SR, et al. Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome: a clinical description of 17 patients with a newly recognized disease. The Hantavirus Study Group. N Engl J Med 1994; 330(14): 949–55.
- 30 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Outbreak of West Nile-like viral encephalitis – New York, 1999. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1999; 48(38): 845–9.
- 31Petersen LR, Roehrig JT. West Nile virus: a reemerging global pathogen. Emerg Infect Dis 2001; 7(4): 611–4.
- 32Fine A, Layton M. Lessons from the West Nile viral encephalitis outbreak in New York City, 1999: implications for bioterrorism preparedness. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32(2): 277–82.
- 33Steele KE, Linn MJ, Schoepp RJ, Komar N, Geisbert TW, Manduca RM, et al. Pathology of fatal West Nile virus infections in native and exotic birds during the 1999 outbreak in New York City, New York. Vet Pathol 2000; 37(3): 208–24.
- 34Lanciotti RS, Roehrig JT, Deubel V, Smith J, Parker M, Steele K, et al. Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States. Science 1999; 286(5448): 2333–7.
- 35Briese T, Jia XY, Huang C, Grady LJ, Lipkin WI. Identification of a Kunjin/West Nile-like flavivirus in brains of patients with New York encephalitis. Lancet 1999; 354(9186): 1261–2.
- 36Sampson BA, Ambrosi C, Charlot A, Reiber K, Veress JF, Armbrustmacher V. The pathology of human West Nile Virus infection. Hum Pathol 2000; 31(5): 527–31.
- 37 Epi data brief: West Nile virus among New York City residents, 1999-2012. New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, 2013; https://www1.nyc.gov/assets/doh/downloads/pdf/epi/databrief31.pdf (accessed November 5, 2018).
- 38Reintjes R, Dedushaj I, Gjini A, Jorgensen TR, Cotter B, Lieftucht A, et al. Tularemia outbreak investigation in Kosovo: case control and environmental studies. Emerg Infect Dis 2002; 8(1): 69–73.
- 39Dennis DT, Inglesby TV, Henderson DA, Bartlett JG, Ascher MS, Eitzen E, et al. Tularemia as a biological weapon: medical and public health management. JAMA 2001; 285(21): 2763–73.
- 40Feldman KA, Enscore RE, Lathrop SL, Matyas BT, McGuill M, Schriefer ME, et al. An outbreak of primary pneumonic tularemia on Martha's Vineyard. N Engl J Med 2001; 345(22): 1601–6.
- 41Teutsch SM, Martone WJ, Brink EW, Potter ME, Eliot G, Hoxsie R, et al. Pneumonic tularemia on Martha's Vineyard. N Engl J Med 1979; 301(15): 826–8.
- 42Ayresm JC, Feemster RF. Epidemiology of tularemia in Massachusetts with a review of the literature. N Engl J Med 1948; 238(6): 187–94.
- 43Cottam EM, Haydon DT, Paton DJ, Gloster J, Wilesmith JW, Ferris NP, et al. Molecular epidemiology of the foot-and-mouth disease virus outbreak in the United Kingdom in 2001. J Virol 2006; 80(22): 11274–82.
- 44Anderson I. Foot and mouth disease 2001: lessons to be learned inquiry report. London: The Stationery Office, 2002.
- 45Gibbens JC, Sharpe CE, Wilesmith JW, Mansley LM, Michalopoulou E, Ryan JB, et al. Descriptive epidemiology of the 2001 foot-and-mouth disease epidemic in Great Britain: the first five months. Vet Rec 2001; 149(24): 729–43.
- 46Gibbens JC, Wilesmith JW. Temporal and geographical distribution of cases of foot-and-mouth disease during the early weeks of the 2001 epidemic in Great Britain. Vet Rec 2002; 151(14): 407–12.
- 47Scudamore JM, Harris DM. Control of foot and mouth disease: lessons from the experience of the outbreak in Great Britain in 2001. Rev Sci Tech 2002; 21(3): 699–710.
- 48Scudamore JM. Origin of the UK foot and mouth disease epidemic in 2001. London: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2002.
- 49Bouma A, Elbers AR, Dekker A, de Koeijer A, Bartels C, Vellema P, et al. The foot-and-mouth disease epidemic in The Netherlands in 2001. Prev Vet Med 2003; 57(3): 155–66.
- 50Griffin JM, O'Reilly PJ. Epidemiology and control of an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in the Republic of Ireland in 2001. Vet Rec 2003; 152(23): 705–12.
- 51Jernigan JA, Stephens DS, Ashford DA, Omenaca C, Topiel MS, Galbraith M, et al. Bioterrorism-related inhalational anthrax: the first 10 cases reported in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2001; 7(6): 933–44.
- 52 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Suspected cutaneous anthrax in a laboratory worker–Texas, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002; 51(13): 279–81.
- 53Barakat LA, Quentzel HL, Jernigan JA, Kirschke DL, Griffith K, Spear SM, et al. Fatal inhalational anthrax in a 94-year-old Connecticut woman. JAMA 2002; 287(7): 863–8.
- 54Gill JR, Melinek J. Inhalation of anthrax: gross autopsy findings. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2002; 126(8): 993–4.
- 55Kman NE, Bachmann DJ. Biosurveillance: a review and update. Adv Prev Med 2012; 2012: 301408.
- 56 National Research Council. Review of the scientific approaches used during the FBI's investigation of the 2001 anthrax letters. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2011.
- 57Borgatta B, Kmet-Lunacek N, Rello J. E. coli O104:H4 outbreak and haemolytic-uraemic syndrome. Med Intensiva 2012; 36(8): 576–83.
- 58Frank C, Werber D, Cramer JP, Askar M, Faber M, an der Heiden M, et al. Epidemic profile of Shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli O104:H4 outbreak in Germany. N Engl J Med 2011; 365(19): 1771–80.
- 59Burger R. EHEC O104:H4 in Germany 2011: large outbreak of bloody diarrhea and haemolytic uraemic syndrome by Shiga toxin-producing E. coli via contaminated food. In: Institute of Medicine, editor. Improving food safety through a one health approach: workshop summary. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2012; 115–30.
- 60Altmann M, Spode A, Altmann D, Wadl M, Benzler J, Eckmanns T, et al. Timeliness of surveillance during outbreak of Shiga Toxin-producing Escherichia coli infection, Germany, 2011. Emerg Infect Dis 2011; 17(10): 1906–9.
- 61Radosavljevic V, Finke EJ, Belojevic G. Escherichia coli O104:H4 outbreak in Germany–clarification of the origin of the epidemic. Eur J Public Health 2015; 25(1): 125–9.
- 62Muniesa M, Hammerl JA, Hertwig S, Appel B, Brussow H. Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O104:H4: a new challenge for microbiology. Appl Environ Microbiol 2012; 78(12): 4065–73.
- 63Grunow R, Finke EJ. A procedure for differentiating between the intentional release of biological warfare agents and natural outbreaks of disease: its use in analyzing the tularemia outbreak in Kosovo in 1999 and 2000. Clin Microbiol Infect 2002; 8(8): 510–21.
- 64 Ebola situation reports: archive. World Health Organization, 2016; https://www.who.int/csr/disease/ebola/situation-reports/archive/en/ (accessed January 30, 2019).
- 65Coltart CE, Lindsey B, Ghinai I, Johnson AM, Heymann DL. The Ebola outbreak, 2013-2016: old lessons for new epidemics. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2017; 372(1721): pii: 20160297.
- 66Beeching NJ, Fenech M, Houlihan CF. Ebola virus disease. BMJ 2014; 349: g7348.
- 67 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Ebola virus disease. Resources and guidance from the CDC. Insight 2015; 40(1): 11–8.
- 68 Ebola (Ebola virus disease): guidance on personal protective equipment (PPE) to be used by healthcare workers during management of patients with confirmed Ebola or persons under investigation (PUIs) for Ebola who are clinically unstable or have bleeding, vomiting, or diarrhea in U.S. hospitals, including procedures for donning and doffing PPE. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015; https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/healthcare-us/ppe/guidance.html (accessed January 28, 2019).
- 69 Ebola (Ebola virus disease): guidance for safe handling of human remains of Ebola patients in U.S. hospitals and mortuaries. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015; https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/clinicians/evd/handling-human-remains.html (accessed January 28, 2019).
- 70Strauss S. Ebola research fueled by bioterrorism threat. CMAJ 2014; 186(16): 1206.
- 71Sridhar S. Clinical development of Ebola vaccines. Ther Adv Vaccines 2015; 3(5–6): 125–38.
- 72Nolte KB, Hanzlick RL, Payne DC, Kroger AT, Oliver WR, Baker AM, et al. Medical examiners, coroners, and biologic terrorism: a guidebook for surveillance and case management. MMWR Recomm Rep 2004; 53(RR-8): 1–27.
- 73Hawryluck L, Lapinsky SE, Stewart TE. Clinical review: SARS - lessons in disaster management. Crit Care 2005; 9(4): 384–9.
- 74 World Health Organization. Key health challenges in the Asia Pacific Region. In: WHO, editor. Regional Office for South-East Asia. Health in Asia and the Pacific. New Delhi: World Health Organization, 2008; 517–30.
- 75Breiman RF, Evans MR, Preiser W, Maguire J, Schnur A, Li A, et al. Role of China in the quest to define and control severe acute respiratory syndrome. Emerg Infect Dis 2003; 9(9): 1037–41.
- 76Nolte KB, Lathrop SL, Nashelsky MB, Nine JS, Gallaher MM, Umland ET, et al. “Med-X”: a medical examiner surveillance model for bioterrorism and infectious disease mortality. Hum Pathol 2007; 38(5): 718–25.
- 77Nolte KB, Taylor DG, Richmond JY. Biosafety considerations for autopsy. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2002; 23(2): 107–22.
- 78 National Research Council; Division on Earth and Life Studies; Board on Life Sciences; Committee on Science Needs for Microbial Forensics: Developing an Initial International Roadmap. Microbial forensics and clinical and public health considerations: commonalities and differences. In: National Research Council, editor. Science needs for microbial forensics: developing initial international research priorities. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2014; 59–78.
Citing Literature
