Epilepsy and comorbidity: infections and antimicrobials usage in relation to epilepsy management
J. W. Sander,
E. Perucca,
J. W. Sander
Department of Clinical and Experimental Epilepsy, Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
Search for more papers by this authorE. Perucca
Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Department of Internal Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
Search for more papers by this authorJ. W. Sander,
E. Perucca,
J. W. Sander
Department of Clinical and Experimental Epilepsy, Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
Search for more papers by this authorE. Perucca
Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Department of Internal Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
Search for more papers by this authorJ. W. Sander, Department of Clinical and Experimental Epilepsy, Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
Tel.: + 44 20 78373611
Fax: + 44 20 72785069
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Infections are probably the most common preventable cause of epilepsy worldwide. There are concerns that endemic infections and infestations, such as malaria and neurocysticercosis, could be responsible for the increased incidence of epilepsy in the developing world. Cases of epilepsy associated with neurocysticercosis are also being seen increasingly in developed countries due to migration from, and travel to, endemic areas. When prescribing antimicrobial agents in patients with epilepsy a number of issues need to be considered, such as potential adverse effects on seizure control and interactions with concomitant antiepileptic drugs (AEDs). Some antimicrobial agents, including penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, quinolones and antimalarials, can have proconvulsant activity and may precipitate seizures, even in patients who do not have epilepsy. Moreover, many antimicrobials increase or decrease the plasma levels of AEDs, whereas some AEDs may adversely affect the efficacy of antimicrobials.
References
- 1 Riley T, White AC. Management of neurocysticercosis. CNS Drugs 2003; 17: 577–91.
- 2 Patsalos PN, Perucca E. Clinically important drug interactions in epilepsy: interactions between antiepileptic drugs and other drugs. Lancet Neurol 2003; 2: 473–81.
- 3 Sander JW. The epidemiology of epilepsy revisited. Curr Opin Neurol 2003; 16: 165–70.
- 4 Sander JW, Shorvon SD. Epidemiology of the epilepsies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1996; 61: 433–43.
- 5 Scott RA, Lhatoo SD, Sander JW. The treatment of epilepsy in developing countries: where do we go from here? Bull World Health Organ 2001; 79: 344–51.
- 6 Bittencourt PR, Sander JW, Mazer S. Viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic infections associated with seizure disorders. In: H Meinardi, ed. Handbook of clinical neurology, Vol. 72: The epilepsies. Amsterdam: Elsevier Sciences, 1999: 145–74.
- 7 Waruiru CM, Newton CR, Forster D et al.Epileptic seizures and malaria in Kenyan children. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1996; 90: 152–5.
- 8 Annegers JF, Rocca WA, Hauser WA. Causes of epilepsy: contributions of the Rochester epidemiology project. Mayo Clin Proc 1996; 71: 570–5.
- 9 Hauser WA, Annegers JF. Risk factors for epilepsy. Epilepsy Res Suppl 1991; 4: 45–52.
- 10 Nicoletti A, Bartoloni A, Reggio A et al. Epilepsy, cysticercosis, and toxocariasis: a population-based case-control study in rural Bolivia. Neurology 2002; 58: 1256–61.
- 11 Carpio A. Neurocysticercosis: an update. Lancet Infect Dis 2002; 2: 751–62.
- 12 Bergen DC, Silberberg D. Nervous system disorders: a global epidemic. Arch Neurol 2002; 59: 1194–6.
- 13 Medina MT, Rosas E, Rubio-Donnadieu F et al. Neurocysticercosis as the main cause of late-onset epilepsy in Mexico. Arch Intern Med 1990; 150: 325–7.
- 14 Johnson MR, Sander JW. The clinical impact of epilepsy genetics. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2001; 70: 428–30.
- 15 Eeg-Olofsson O. Virological and immunological aspects of seizure disorders. Brain Dev 2003; 25: 9–13.
- 16 Molyneux ME. Impact of malaria on the brain and its prevention. Lancet 2000; 355: 671–2.
- 17 Pal DK, Carpio A, Sander JW. Neurocysticercosis and epilepsy in developing countries. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2000; 68: 137–43.
- 18 Marks DA, Kim J, Spencer DD et al. Characteristics of intractable seizures following meningitis and encephalitis. Neurology 1992; 42: 1513–8.
- 19 Modi G, Modi M, Martinus I et al. New-onset seizures associated with HIV infection. Neurology 2000; 55: 1558–61.
- 20 Oostenbrink R, Moons KG, Derksen-Lubsen G et al. Early prediction of neurological sequelae or death after bacterial meningitis. Acta Paediatr 2002; 91: 391–8.
- 21 Woodruff AW, Bisseru B, Bowe JC. Infection with animal helminths as a factor in causing poliomyelitis and epilepsy. Br Med J 1966; ii: 1576–9.
- 22 Wallace KL. Antibiotic-induced convulsions. Crit Care Clinics 1997; 13: 2741–62.
- 23 Barrons RW, Murray KM, Richey RM. Populations at risk for penicillin-induced seizures. Ann Pharmacother 1992; 26: 924–26.
- 24 Hantson Ph, Léonard F, Maloteaux JM, Mahieu P. How epileptogenic are the recent antibiotics? Acta Clin Belg 1999; 54: 80–7.
- 25 Adamolekum B. Epileptogenic potential of antimalarial drugs. West Afr J Med 1993; 12: 231–26.
- 26 Burchard GD, Bauer J. Recommendations for prevention of malaria in patients with epilepsy. Nervenartz 2001; 72: 460–5[in German].
- 27 Kushner JN, Peckman HJ, Snyder CR. Seizures associated with fluoroquinolones. Ann Pharmacother 2001; 35: 1194–8.
- 28 Norrby SR. Neurotoxicity of carbapenem antibacterials. Drug Safety 1996; 15: 287–90.
- 29 De Turck BJ, Diltoer MW, Cornelis PJ et al.Lowering of plasma valproic acid concentrations during concomitant therapy with meropenem and amikacin. J Antimicrob Chemother, 1998; 42: 430–563.
- 30 Torii M, Takiguchi Y, Izumi M, Fukushima T, Yokota M. Carbapenem antibiotics inhibit valproic acid transport in Caco-2 cell monolayers. Int J Pharm 2002; 233: 253–6.
- 31 Patsalos PN, Perucca E. Clinically important drug interactions in epilepsy: general features and interactions between antiepileptic drugs. Lancet Neurol 2003; 2: 347–56.
- 32 Von Rosensteil NA, Adam D. Macrolides antibacterials. Drug interactions of clinical significance. Drug Safety 1995; 13: 105–22.
- 33 Wroblewski BA, Singer WD, Whyte J. Carbamazepine–erythromycin interaction. Case studies and clinical significance. J Am Med Assoc 1986; 255: 1165–7.
- 34 Macnab AJ, Robinson JL, Adderly RJ, D'Orsogna L. Heart block secondary to erythromycin-induced carbamazepine toxicity. Pediatrics 1987; 80: 951–3.
- 35 Romanelli F, Jennings HR, Nth A, Ryan M, Berger J. Therapeutic dilemma: the use of anticonvulsants in HIV-positive individuals. Neurology 2000; 54: 1404–7.
- 36 Cadle RM, Zenon GJ III, Rodriguez-Barradas MC, Hamill RJ. Fluconazole induced symptomatic phenytoin toxicity. Ann Pharmacother 1994; 28: 191–5.
- 37 Miller RR, Porter J, Greenblatt DJ. Clinical importance of the interaction of phenytoin and isoniazid: a report from the Boston Collaborative Drug Surveillance Program. Chest 1979; 75: 353–8.
- 38 Ducharme MP, Slaughter RL, Warbasse LH et al. Itraconazole and hydroxyitraconazole serum concentrations are reduced more than tenfold by phenytoin. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1995; 58: 617–24.
- 39 Hugen PW, Burger DM, Brinkman K et al. Carbamazepine–indinavir interaction causes antiretroviral therapy failure. Ann Pharmacother 2000; 34: 465–70.
- 40 Lertora JJ, Rege AB, Greenspan DL et al.Pharmacokinetic interaction between zidovudine and valproic acid in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1994; 56: 272–8.
