Chapter 10
Acute Tubular Necrosis
Amanda DeMauro Renaghan,
Mitchell H. Rosner,
Amanda DeMauro Renaghan
Division of Nephrology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA, USA
Search for more papers by this authorMitchell H. Rosner
Division of Nephrology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA, USA
Search for more papers by this authorAmanda DeMauro Renaghan,
Mitchell H. Rosner,
Amanda DeMauro Renaghan
Division of Nephrology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA, USA
Search for more papers by this authorMitchell H. Rosner
Division of Nephrology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA, USA
Search for more papers by this authorBook Editor(s):Jonathan C. Craig MBChB, DipCH, MMed(Clin Epi), PhD, FAHMS,
Donald A. Molony MD,
Giovanni F.M. Strippoli MD, PhD, MPH, MM (Epi),
Jonathan C. Craig MBChB, DipCH, MMed(Clin Epi), PhD, FAHMS
Matthew Flinders Distinguished Professor Vice President and Executive Dean
College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorDonald A. Molony MD
Professor of Medicine Distinguished Teaching Professor of the University of Texas System
Division of Renal Diseases and Hypertension AND Center for Clinical Research and Evidence-based Medicine, McGovern Medical School University of Texas, Houston, TX, USA
Search for more papers by this authorGiovanni F.M. Strippoli MD, PhD, MPH, MM (Epi)
Professor of Nephrology Adjunct Professor of Epidemiology
Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantation – University of Bari, Bari, Italy
School of Public Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorFirst published: 18 November 2022
Summary
The two most common etiologies of Acute kidney injury are prerenal azotemia, caused by reversible renal hypoperfusion, and acute tubular necrosis (ATN). ATN results from intrinsic parenchymal damage mediated by endothelial and epithelial cell injury, intratubular obstruction, and immunologic and inflammatory processes. ATN is a histopathologic and pathophysiologic entity that is the end result of numerous ischemic, nephrotoxic, and inflammatory insults. Certain patients and populations are at greater risk for the development of ATN based on age, comorbidities, severity of illness, and exposures to procedures and medications. The histologic lesions of ATN predominantly affect the proximal tubules and vary with the severity of kidney injury and the stage of evolution of the lesion. In ATN, renal blood supply (RBF) can decrease by as much as 30–50%, with a disproportionate decrease in medullary blood flow relative to total RBF contributing to pronounced medullary ischemia.
References
- Thadhani , R. , Pascual , M. , and Bonventre , J.V. ( 1996 ). Acute renal failure . N. Engl. J. Med. 334 ( 22 ): 1448 – 1460 .
- Lameire , N. , Van Biesen , W. , and Vanholder , R. ( 2005 ). Acute renal failure . Lancet 365 ( 9457 ): 417 – 430 .
- Hou , S.H. , Bushinsky , D.A. , Wish , J.B. et al. ( 1983 ). Hospital-acquired renal insufficiency: a prospective study . Am. J. Med. 74 ( 2 ): 243 – 248 .
- Liano , F. and Pascual , J. ( 1996 ). Epidemiology of acute renal failure: a prospective, multicenter, community-based study. Madrid acute renal failure study group . Kidney Int. 50 ( 3 ): 811 – 818 .
- Mehta , R.L. , Pascual , M.T. , Soroko , S. et al. ( 2004 ). Spectrum of acute renal failure in the intensive care unit: the PICARD experience . Kidney Int. 66 ( 4 ): 1613 – 1621 .
- Nash , K. , Hafeez , A. , and Hou , S. ( 2002 ). Hospital-acquired renal insufficiency . Am. J. Kidney Dis. 39 ( 5 ): 930 – 936 .
- Fogo , A.B. , Lusco , M.A. , Najafian , B. , and Alpers , C.E. ( 2016 ). AJKD atlas of renal pathology: ischemic acute tubular injury . Am. J. Kidney Dis. 67 ( 5 ): e25 .
- Perazella , M.A. , Coca , S.G. , Kanbay , M. et al. ( 2008 ). Diagnostic value of urine microscopy for differential diagnosis of acute kidney injury in hospitalized patients . Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 3 ( 6 ): 1615 – 1619 .
- Abuelo , J.G. ( 2007 ). Normotensive ischemic acute renal failure . N. Engl. J. Med. 357 ( 8 ): 797 – 805 .
- Bohle , A. , Christensen , J. , Kokot , F. et al. ( 1990 ). Acute renal failure in man: new aspects concerning pathogenesis. A morphometric study . Am. J. Nephrol. 10 ( 5 ): 374 – 388 .
- Moeckel , G.W. ( 2018 ). Pathologic perspectives on acute tubular injury assessment in the kidney biopsy . Semin. Nephrol. 38 ( 1 ): 21 – 30 .
- Hoste , E.A. , Clermont , G. , Kersten , A. et al. ( 2006 ). RIFLE criteria for acute kidney injury are associated with hospital mortality in critically ill patients: a cohort analysis . Crit. Care 10 ( 3 ): R73 .
- Uchino , S. , Bellomo , R. , Goldsmith , D. et al. ( 2006 ). An assessment of the RIFLE criteria for acute renal failure in hospitalized patients . Crit. Care Med. 34 ( 7 ): 1913 – 1917 .
- Dixit , M. , Doan , T. , Kirschner , R. , and Dixit , N. ( 2010 ). Significant acute kidney injury due to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: inpatient setting . Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 3 ( 4 ): 1279 – 1285 .
- Brivet , F.G. , Kleinknecht , D.J. , Loirat , P. , and Landais , P.J. ( 1996 ). Acute renal failure in intensive care units – causes, outcome, and prognostic factors of hospital mortality; a prospective, multicenter study. French study group on acute renal failure . Crit. Care Med. 24 ( 2 ): 192 – 198 .
- Cole , L. , Bellomo , R. , Silvester , W. , and Reeves , J.H. ( 2000 ). A prospective, multicenter study of the epidemiology, management, and outcome of severe acute renal failure in a “closed” ICU system . Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162 ( 1 ): 191 – 196 .
- Dawson , J.L. ( 1965 ). Post-operative renal function in obstructive jaundice: effect of a mannitol diuresis . Br. Med. J. 1 ( 5427 ): 82 – 86 .
- Gornick , C.C. Jr. and Kjellstrand , C.M. ( 1983 ). Acute renal failure complicating aortic aneurysm surgery . Nephron 35 ( 3 ): 145 – 157 .
- Grayson , A.D. , Khater , M. , Jackson , M. , and Fox , M.A. ( 2003 ). Valvular heart operation is an independent risk factor for acute renal failure . Ann. Thorac. Surg. 75 ( 6 ): 1829 – 1835 .
- Liano , F. , Junco , E. , Pascual , J. et al. ( 1998 ). The spectrum of acute renal failure in the intensive care unit compared with that seen in other settings. The Madrid acute renal failure study group . Kidney Int. Suppl. 66 : S16 – S24 .
- Neveu , H. , Kleinknecht , D. , Brivet , F. et al. ( 1996 ). Prognostic factors in acute renal failure due to sepsis. Results of a prospective multicentre study. The French study group on acute renal failure . Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 11 ( 2 ): 293 – 299 .
- Rosner , M.H. and Okusa , M.D. ( 2006 ). Acute kidney injury associated with cardiac surgery . Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 1 ( 1 ): 19 – 32 .
- Wangsiripaisan , A. , Gengaro , P.E. , Edelstein , C.L. , and Schrier , R.W. ( 2001 ). Role of polymeric tamm-horsfall protein in cast formation: oligosaccharide and tubular fluid ions . Kidney Int. 59 ( 3 ): 932 – 940 .
- Basile , D.P. , Anderson , M.D. , and Sutton , T.A. ( 2012 ). Pathophysiology of acute kidney injury . Compr. Physiol. 2 ( 2 ): 1303 – 1353 .
- Mullens , W. , Abrahams , Z. , Skouri , H.N. et al. ( 2008 ). Elevated intra-abdominal pressure in acute decompensated heart failure: a potential contributor to worsening renal function? J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 51 ( 3 ): 300 – 306 .
- Lameire , N.H. and Vanholder , R. ( 2004 ). Pathophysiology of ischaemic acute renal failure . Best Pract. Res. Clin. Anaesthesiol. 18 ( 1 ): 21 – 36 .
- Kinsey , G.R. and Okusa , M.D. ( 2011 ). Pathogenesis of acute kidney injury: foundation for clinical practice . Am. J. Kidney Dis. 58 ( 2 ): 291 – 301 .
- Brezis , M. , Rosen , S.N. , and Epstein , F.H. ( 1989 ). The pathophysiological implications of medullary hypoxia . Am. J. Kidney Dis. 13 ( 3 ): 253 – 258 .
- Fish , E.M. and Molitoris , B.A. ( 1994 ). Alterations in epithelial polarity and the pathogenesis of disease states . N. Engl. J. Med. 330 ( 22 ): 1580 – 1588 .
- Gailit , J. , Colflesh , D. , Rabiner , I. et al. ( 1993 ). Redistribution and dysfunction of integrins in cultured renal epithelial cells exposed to oxidative stress . Am. J. Phys. 264 ( 1 Pt 2 ): F149 – F157 .
- Molitoris , B.A. , Dahl , R. , and Geerdes , A. ( 1992 ). Cytoskeleton disruption and apical redistribution of proximal tubule Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase during ischemia . Am. J. Phys. 263 ( 3 Pt 2 ): F488 – F495 .
- Bonventre , J.V. and Weinberg , J.M. ( 2003 ). Recent advances in the pathophysiology of ischemic acute renal failure . J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 14 ( 8 ): 2199 – 2210 .
- Kaushal , G.P. , Basnakian , A.G. , and Shah , S.V. ( 2004 ). Apoptotic pathways in ischemic acute renal failure . Kidney Int. 66 ( 2 ): 500 – 506 .
- Donohoe , J.F. , Venkatachalam , M.A. , Bernard , D.B. , and Levinsky , N.G. ( 1978 ). Tubular leakage and obstruction after renal ischemia: structural-functional correlations . Kidney Int. 13 ( 3 ): 208 – 222 .
- Hollenberg , N.K. , Adams , D.F. , Oken , D.E. et al. ( 1970 ). Acute renal failure due to nephrotoxins . N. Engl. J. Med. 282 ( 24 ): 1329 – 1334 .
- Hollenberg , N.K. , Epstein , M. , Rosen , S.M. et al. ( 1968 ). Acute oliguric renal failure in man: evidence for preferential renal cortical ischemia . Medicine (Baltimore) 47 ( 6 ): 455 – 474 .
- Karlberg , L. , Norlen , B.J. , Ojteg , G. , and Wolgast , M. ( 1983 ). Impaired medullary circulation in postischemic acute renal failure . Acta Physiol. Scand. 118 ( 1 ): 11 – 17 .
- Reubi , F.C. ( 1974 ). The pathogenesis of anuria following shock . Kidney Int. 5 ( 2 ): 106 – 110 .
- Mason , J. , Takabatake , T. , Olbricht , C. , and Thurau , K. ( 1978 ). The early phase of experimental acute renal failure. III. Tubologlomerular feedback . Pflugers Arch. 373 ( 1 ): 69 – 76 .
- Langenberg , C. , Wan , L. , Egi , M. et al. ( 2007 ). Renal blood flow and function during recovery from experimental septic acute kidney injury . Intensive Care Med. 33 ( 9 ): 1614 – 1618 .
- Wan , L. , Langenberg , C. , Bellomo , R. , and May , C.N. ( 2009 ). Angiotensin II in experimental hyperdynamic sepsis . Crit. Care 13 ( 6 ): R190 .
- Bellomo , R. , Wan , L. , Langenberg , C. et al. ( 2011 ). Septic acute kidney injury: the glomerular arterioles . Contrib. Nephrol. 174 : 98 – 107 .
- Heyman , S.N. , Rosen , S. , Fuchs , S. et al. ( 1996 ). Myoglobinuric acute renal failure in the rat: a role for medullary hypoperfusion, hypoxia, and tubular obstruction . J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 7 ( 7 ): 1066 – 1074 .
- Zager , R.A. ( 1996 ). Rhabdomyolysis and myohemoglobinuric acute renal failure . Kidney Int. 49 ( 2 ): 314 – 326 .
- Rosner , M.H. and Perazella , M.A. ( 2017 ). Acute kidney injury in patients with cancer . N. Engl. J. Med. 377 ( 5 ): 500 – 501 .
- Makris , K. and Spanou , L. ( 2016 ). Acute kidney injury: diagnostic approaches and controversies . Clin. Biochem. Rev. 37 ( 4 ): 153 – 175 .
- Carvounis , C.P. , Nisar , S. , and Guro-Razuman , S. ( 2002 ). Significance of the fractional excretion of urea in the differential diagnosis of acute renal failure . Kidney Int. 62 ( 6 ): 2223 – 2229 .
- Molony , D.A. and Craig , J.C. ( 2009 ). Evidence-based nephrology . Wiley Online Library UBCM All Obooks. http://RE5QY4SB7X.search.serialssolutions.com/?V=1.0&L=RE5QY4SB7X&S=JCs&C=TC0000151296&T=marc (accessed 22 May 2020).
- Corwin , H.L. , Schreiber , M.J. , and Fang , L.S. ( 1984 ). Low fractional excretion of sodium. Occurrence with hemoglobinuric- and myoglobinuric-induced acute renal failure . Arch. Intern. Med. 144 ( 5 ): 981 – 982 .
- Fang , L.S. , Sirota , R.A. , Ebert , T.H. , and Lichtenstein , N.S. ( 1980 ). Low fractional excretion of sodium with contrast media-induced acute renal failure . Arch. Intern. Med. 140 ( 4 ): 531 – 533 .
- Vaz , A.J. ( 1983 ). Low fractional excretion of urine sodium in acute renal failure due to sepsis . Arch. Intern. Med. 143 ( 4 ): 738 – 739 .
- Zarich , S. , Fang , L.S. , and Diamond , J.R. ( 1985 ). Fractional excretion of sodium. Exceptions to its diagnostic value . Arch. Intern. Med. 145 ( 1 ): 108 – 112 .
- Perazella , M.A. , Coca , S.G. , Hall , I.E. et al. ( 2010 ). Urine microscopy is associated with severity and worsening of acute kidney injury in hospitalized patients . Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 5 ( 3 ): 402 – 408 .
- Kanbay , M. , Kasapoglu , B. , and Perazella , M.A. ( 2010 ). Acute tubular necrosis and pre-renal acute kidney injury: utility of urine microscopy in their evaluation- a systematic review . Int. Urol. Nephrol. 42 ( 2 ): 425 – 433 .
- Malhotra , R. and Siew , E.D. ( 2017 ). Biomarkers for the early detection and prognosis of acute kidney injury . Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 12 ( 1 ): 149 – 173 .
- Han , W.K. , Waikar , S.S. , Johnson , A. et al. ( 2008 ). Urinary biomarkers in the early diagnosis of acute kidney injury . Kidney Int. 73 ( 7 ): 863 – 869 .
- Parikh , C.R. , Coca , S.G. , Thiessen-Philbrook , H. et al. ( 2011 ). Postoperative biomarkers predict acute kidney injury and poor outcomes after adult cardiac surgery . J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 22 ( 9 ): 1748 – 1757 .
- Kashani , K. , Al-Khafaji , A. , Ardiles , T. et al. ( 2013 ). Discovery and validation of cell cycle arrest biomarkers in human acute kidney injury . Crit. Care 17 ( 1 ): R25 .
- Meersch , M. , Schmidt , C. , Hoffmeier , A. et al. ( 2017 ). Prevention of cardiac surgery-associated AKI by implementing the KDIGO guidelines in high risk patients identified by biomarkers: the PrevAKI randomized controlled trial . Intensive Care Med. 43 ( 11 ): 1551 – 1561 .
- Myers , B.D. and Moran , S.M. ( 1986 ). Hemodynamically mediated acute renal failure . N. Engl. J. Med. 314 ( 2 ): 97 – 105 .
- Spurney , R.F. , Fulkerson , W.J. , and Schwab , S.J. ( 1991 ). Acute renal failure in critically ill patients: prognosis for recovery of kidney function after prolonged dialysis support . Crit. Care Med. 19 ( 1 ): 8 – 11 .
- Schiffl , H. ( 2006 ). Renal recovery from acute tubular necrosis requiring renal replacement therapy: a prospective study in critically ill patients . Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 21 ( 5 ): 1248 – 1252 .
- Basile , D.P. , Bonventre , J.V. , Mehta , R. et al. ( 2016 ). Progression after AKI: understanding maladaptive repair processes to predict and identify therapeutic treatments . J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 27 ( 3 ): 687 – 697 .
- Hsu , C.Y. , Chertow , G.M. , McCulloch , C.E. et al. ( 2009 ). Nonrecovery of kidney function and death after acute on chronic renal failure . Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 4 ( 5 ): 891 – 898 .
- Chawla , L.S. , Amdur , R.L. , Amodeo , S. et al. ( 2011 ). The severity of acute kidney injury predicts progression to chronic kidney disease . Kidney Int. 79 ( 12 ): 1361 – 1369 .
- Schmitt , R. , Coca , S. , Kanbay , M. et al. ( 2008 ). Recovery of kidney function after acute kidney injury in the elderly: a systematic review and meta-analysis . Am. J. Kidney Dis. 52 ( 2 ): 262 – 271 .
- Hoste , E.A. , Bagshaw , S.M. , Bellomo , R. et al. ( 2015 ). Epidemiology of acute kidney injury in critically ill patients: the multinational AKI-EPI study . Intensive Care Med. 41 ( 8 ): 1411 – 1423 .
- Bucaloiu , I.D. , Kirchner , H.L. , Norfolk , E.R. et al. ( 2012 ). Increased risk of death and de novo chronic kidney disease following reversible acute kidney injury . Kidney Int. 81 ( 5 ): 477 – 485 .
- Husain-Syed , F. , Ferrari , F. , Sharma , A. et al. ( 2018 ). Preoperative renal functional reserve predicts risk of acute kidney injury after cardiac operation . Ann. Thorac. Surg. 105 ( 4 ): 1094 – 1101 .
- Husain-Syed , F. , Ferrari , F. , Sharma , A. et al. ( 2018 ). Persistent decrease of renal functional reserve in patients after cardiac surgery-associated acute kidney injury despite clinical recovery . Nephrol. Dial. Transplant .
- Ali , M.Z. and Goetz , M.B. ( 1997 ). A meta-analysis of the relative efficacy and toxicity of single daily dosing versus multiple daily dosing of aminoglycosides . Clin. Infect. Dis. 24 ( 5 ): 796 – 809 .
- Blaser , J. and Konig , C. ( 1995 ). Once-daily dosing of aminoglycosides . Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 14 ( 12 ): 1029 – 1038 .
- Barza , M. , Ioannidis , J.P. , Cappelleri , J.C. , and Lau , J. ( 1996 ). Single or multiple daily doses of aminoglycosides: a meta-analysis . BMJ 312 ( 7027 ): 338 – 345 .
- Ferriols-Lisart , R. and Alos-Alminana , M. ( 1996 ). Effectiveness and safety of once-daily aminoglycosides: a meta-analysis . Am. J. Health Syst. Pharm. 53 ( 10 ): 1141 – 1150 .
- Hatala , R. , Dinh , T. , and Cook , D.J. ( 1996 ). Once-daily aminoglycoside dosing in immunocompetent adults: a meta-analysis . Ann. Intern. Med. 124 ( 8 ): 717 – 725 .
- Munckhof , W.J. , Grayson , M.L. , and Turnidge , J.D. ( 1996 ). A meta-analysis of studies on the safety and efficacy of aminoglycosides given either once daily or as divided doses . J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 37 ( 4 ): 645 – 663 .
- Anderson , C.M. ( 1995 ). Sodium chloride treatment of amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. Standard of care? West. J. Med. 162 ( 4 ): 313 – 317 .
- Llanos , A. , Cieza , J. , Bernardo , J. et al. ( 1991 ). Effect of salt supplementation on amphotericin B nephrotoxicity . Kidney Int. 40 ( 2 ): 302 – 308 .
- Botero Aguirre , J.P. and Restrepo Hamid , A.M. ( 2015 ). Amphotericin B deoxycholate versus liposomal amphotericin B: effects on kidney function . Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. ( 11 ): CD010481.
- Chen , X.Y. , Xu , R.X. , Zhou , X. et al. ( 2018 ). Acute kidney injury associated with concomitant vancomycin and piperacillin/tazobactam administration: a systematic review and meta-analysis . Int. Urol. Nephrol .
- Giuliano , C.A. , Patel , C.R. , and Kale-Pradhan , P.B. ( 2016 ). Is the combination of piperacillin-tazobactam and vancomycin associated with development of acute kidney injury? A meta-analysis . Pharmacotherapy 36 ( 12 ): 1217 – 1228 .
- Hammond , D.A. , Smith , M.N. , Li , C. et al. ( 2017 ). Systematic review and meta-analysis of acute kidney injury associated with concomitant vancomycin and piperacillin/tazobactam . Clin. Infect. Dis. 64 ( 5 ): 666 – 674 .
- Luther , M.K. , Timbrook , T.T. , Caffrey , A.R. et al. ( 2018 ). Vancomycin plus piperacillin-tazobactam and acute kidney injury in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis . Crit. Care Med. 46 ( 1 ): 12 – 20 .
- Mellen , C.K. , Ryba , J.E. , and Rindone , J.P. ( 2017 ). Does piperacillin-tazobactam increase the risk of nephrotoxicity when used with vancomycin: a meta-analysis of observational trials . Curr. Drug Saf. 12 ( 1 ): 62 – 66 .
- Brar , S.S. , Aharonian , V. , Mansukhani , P. et al. ( 2014 ). Haemodynamic-guided fluid administration for the prevention of contrast-induced acute kidney injury: the POSEIDON randomised controlled trial . Lancet 383 ( 9931 ): 1814 – 1823 .
- Jurado-Roman , A. , Hernandez-Hernandez , F. , Garcia-Tejada , J. et al. ( 2015 ). Role of hydration in contrast-induced nephropathy in patients who underwent primary percutaneous coronary intervention . Am. J. Cardiol. 115 ( 9 ): 1174 – 1178 .
- Luo , Y. , Wang , X. , Ye , Z. et al. ( 2014 ). Remedial hydration reduces the incidence of contrast-induced nephropathy and short-term adverse events in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction: a single-center, randomized trial . Intern. Med. 53 ( 20 ): 2265 – 2272 .
- Nijssen , E.C. , Rennenberg , R.J. , Nelemans , P.J. et al. ( 2017 ). Prophylactic hydration to protect renal function from intravascular iodinated contrast material in patients at high risk of contrast-induced nephropathy (AMACING): a prospective, randomised, phase 3, controlled, open-label, non-inferiority trial . Lancet 389 ( 10076 ): 1312 – 1322 .
- Trivedi , H.S. , Moore , H. , Nasr , S. et al. ( 2003 ). A randomized prospective trial to assess the role of saline hydration on the development of contrast nephrotoxicity . Nephron Clin. Pract. 93 ( 1 ): C29 – C34 .
- Weisbord , S.D. , Gallagher , M. , Jneid , H. et al. ( 2018 ). Outcomes after angiography with sodium bicarbonate and acetylcysteine . N. Engl. J. Med. 378 ( 7 ): 603 – 614 .
- Zoungas , S. , Ninomiya , T. , Huxley , R. et al. ( 2009 ). Systematic review: sodium bicarbonate treatment regimens for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy . Ann. Intern. Med. 151 ( 9 ): 631 – 638 .
- Gunal , A.I. , Celiker , H. , Dogukan , A. et al. ( 2004 ). Early and vigorous fluid resuscitation prevents acute renal failure in the crush victims of catastrophic earthquakes . J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 15 ( 7 ): 1862 – 1867 .
- Ron , D. , Taitelman , U. , Michaelson , M. et al. ( 1984 ). Prevention of acute renal failure in traumatic rhabdomyolysis . Arch. Intern. Med. 144 ( 2 ): 277 – 280 .
- Brown , C.V. , Rhee , P. , Chan , L. et al. ( 2004 ). Preventing renal failure in patients with rhabdomyolysis: do bicarbonate and mannitol make a difference? J. Trauma 56 ( 6 ): 1191 – 1196 .
- Kim , E. , Choi , Y.H. , Lim , J.Y. et al. ( 2018 ). The effect of early urine alkalinization on occurrence rhabdomyolysis and hospital stay in high dose doxylamine ingestion . Am. J. Emerg. Med. 36 ( 7 ): 1170 – 1173 .
- Scharman , E.J. and Troutman , W.G. ( 2013 ). Prevention of kidney injury following rhabdomyolysis: a systematic review . Ann. Pharmacother. 47 ( 1 ): 90 – 105 .
- Zacharias , M. , Mugawar , M. , Herbison , G.P. et al. ( 2013 ). Interventions for protecting renal function in the perioperative period . Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. ( 9 ): CD003590.
- Lamy , A. , Devereaux , P.J. , Prabhakaran , D. et al. ( 2012 ). Off-pump or on-pump coronary-artery bypass grafting at 30 days . N. Engl. J. Med. 366 ( 16 ): 1489 – 1497 .
- Nigwekar , S.U. , Kandula , P. , Hix , J.K. , and Thakar , C.V. ( 2009 ). Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery and acute kidney injury: a meta-analysis of randomized and observational studies . Am. J. Kidney Dis. 54 ( 3 ): 413 – 423 .
- Seabra , V.F. , Alobaidi , S. , Balk , E.M. et al. ( 2010 ). Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery and acute kidney injury: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials . Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 5 ( 10 ): 1734 – 1744 .
- Bellomo , R. , Chapman , M. , Finfer , S. et al. ( 2000 ). Low-dose dopamine in patients with early renal dysfunction: a placebo- controlled randomised trial. Australian and New Zealand intensive care society (ANZICS) clinical trials group . Lancet 356 ( 9248 ): 2139 – 2143 .
- Friedrich , J.O. , Adhikari , N. , Herridge , M.S. , and Beyene , J. ( 2005 ). Meta-analysis: low-dose dopamine increases urine output but does not prevent renal dysfunction or death . Ann. Intern. Med. 142 ( 7 ): 510 – 524 .
- Kellum , J.A. and M Decker J. ( 2001 ). Use of dopamine in acute renal failure: a meta-analysis . Crit. Care Med. 29 ( 8 ): 1526 – 1531 .
- Bove , T. , Landoni , G. , Calabro , M.G. et al. ( 2005 ). Renoprotective action of fenoldopam in high-risk patients undergoing cardiac surgery: a prospective, double-blind, randomized clinical trial . Circulation 111 ( 24 ): 3230 – 3235 .
- Gillies , M.A. , Kakar , V. , Parker , R.J. et al. ( 2015 ). Fenoldopam to prevent acute kidney injury after major surgery-a systematic review and meta-analysis . Crit. Care 19 :449: 1 – 9 .
- Landoni , G. , Biondi-Zoccai , G.G. , Tumlin , J.A. et al. ( 2007 ). Beneficial impact of fenoldopam in critically ill patients with or at risk for acute renal failure: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials . Am. J. Kidney Dis. 49 ( 1 ): 56 – 68 .
- Morelli , A. , Ricci , Z. , Bellomo , R. et al. ( 2005 ). Prophylactic fenoldopam for renal protection in sepsis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot trial . Crit. Care Med. 33 ( 11 ): 2451 – 2456 .
- Bove , T. , Belletti , A. , Putzu , A. et al. ( 2018 ). Intermittent furosemide administration in patients with or at risk for acute kidney injury: meta-analysis of randomized trials . PLoS ONE 13 ( 4 ): e0196088 .
- Hager , B. , Betschart , M. , and Krapf , R. ( 1996 ). Effect of postoperative intravenous loop diuretic on renal function after major surgery . Schweiz. Med. Wochenschr. 126 ( 16 ): 666 – 673 .
- Ho , K.M. and Sheridan , D.J. ( 2006 ). Meta-analysis of frusemide to prevent or treat acute renal failure . BMJ 333 ( 7565 ): 420 .
- Ho , K.M. and Power , B.M. ( 2010 ). Benefits and risks of furosemide in acute kidney injury . Anaesthesia 65 ( 3 ): 283 – 293 .
- Lassnigg , A. , Donner , E. , Grubhofer , G. et al. ( 2000 ). Lack of renoprotective effects of dopamine and furosemide during cardiac surgery . J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 11 ( 1 ): 97 – 104 .
- Nigwekar , S.U. , Navaneethan , S.D. , Parikh , C.R. , and Hix , J.K. ( 2009 ). Atrial natriuretic peptide for preventing and treating acute kidney injury . Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. ( 4 ): CD006028.
- Nigwekar , S.U. and Hix , J.K. ( 2009 ). The role of natriuretic peptide administration in cardiovascular surgery-associated renal dysfunction: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials . J. Cardiothorac. Vasc. Anesth. 23 ( 2 ): 151 – 160 .
- Menting , T.P. , Wever , K.E. , Ozdemir-van Brunschot , D.M. et al. ( 2017 ). Ischaemic preconditioning for the reduction of renal ischaemia reperfusion injury . Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 3 : CD010777.
- Billings , F.T. 4th , Hendricks , P.A. , Schildcrout , J.S. et al. ( 2016 ). High-dose perioperative atorvastatin and acute kidney injury following cardiac surgery: a randomized clinical trial . JAMA 315 ( 9 ): 877 – 888 .
- Park , J.H. , Shim , J.K. , Song , J.W. et al. ( 2016 ). Effect of atorvastatin on the incidence of acute kidney injury following valvular heart surgery: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial . Intensive Care Med. 42 ( 9 ): 1398 – 1407 .
- Prowle , J.R. , Calzavacca , P. , Licari , E. et al. ( 2012 ). Pilot double-blind, randomized controlled trial of short-term atorvastatin for prevention of acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery . Nephrology (Carlton) 17 ( 3 ): 215 – 224 .
- Bertino , J.S. Jr. , Booker , L.A. , Franck , P.A. et al. ( 1993 ). Incidence of and significant risk factors for aminoglycoside-associated nephrotoxicity in patients dosed by using individualized pharmacokinetic monitoring . J. Infect. Dis. 167 ( 1 ): 173 – 179 .
- Kacew , S. and Bergeron , M.G. ( 1990 ). Pathogenic factors in aminoglycoside-induced nephrotoxicity . Toxicol. Lett. 51 ( 3 ): 241 – 259 . discussion 237-9.
- Laurent , G. , Kishore , B.K. , and Tulkens , P.M. ( 1990 ). Aminoglycoside-induced renal phospholipidosis and nephrotoxicity . Biochem. Pharmacol. 40 ( 11 ): 2383 – 2392 .
- Leehey , D.J. , Braun , B.I. , Tholl , D.A. et al. ( 1993 ). Can pharmacokinetic dosing decrease nephrotoxicity associated with aminoglycoside therapy . J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 4 ( 1 ): 81 – 90 .
- Lopez-Novoa , J.M. , Quiros , Y. , Vicente , L. et al. ( 2011 ). New insights into the mechanism of aminoglycoside nephrotoxicity: an integrative point of view . Kidney Int. 79 ( 1 ): 33 – 45 .
- Wargo , K.A. and Edwards , J.D. ( 2014 ). Aminoglycoside-induced nephrotoxicity . J. Pharm. Pract. 27 ( 6 ): 573 – 577 .
-
Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Acute Kidney Injury Work Group
(
2012
).
Section 3: Prevention and treatment of AKI
.
Kidney Int. Suppl.
2
(
1
):
37
–
68
.
10.1038/kisup.2011.33 Google Scholar
- Bates , D.W. , Su , L. , Yu , D.T. et al. ( 2001 ). Correlates of acute renal failure in patients receiving parenteral amphotericin B . Kidney Int. 60 ( 4 ): 1452 – 1459 .
- Harbarth , S. , Pestotnik , S.L. , Lloyd , J.F. et al. ( 2001 ). The epidemiology of nephrotoxicity associated with conventional amphotericin B therapy . Am. J. Med. 111 ( 7 ): 528 – 534 .
- Sabra , R. and Branch , R.A. ( 1990 ). Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity . Drug Saf. 5 ( 2 ): 94 – 108 .
- Gerkens , J.F. and Branch , R.A. ( 1980 ). The influence of sodium status and furosemide on canine acute amphotericin B nephrotoxicity . J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 214 ( 2 ): 306 – 311 .
- Carreno , J.J. , Kenney , R.M. , and Lomaestro , B. ( 2014 ). Vancomycin-associated renal dysfunction: where are we now? Pharmacotherapy 34 ( 12 ): 1259 – 1268 . doi: 10.1002/phar.1488 [doi].
- Farber , B.F. and Moellering , R.C. Jr. ( 1983 ). Retrospective study of the toxicity of preparations of vancomycin from 1974 to 1981 . Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 23 ( 1 ): 138 – 141 .
- Jeffres , M.N. , Isakow , W. , Doherty , J.A. et al. ( 2007 ). A retrospective analysis of possible renal toxicity associated with vancomycin in patients with health care-associated methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus pneumonia . Clin. Ther. 29 ( 6 ): 1107 – 1115 .
- Aspelin , P. , Aubry , P. , Fransson , S.G. et al. ( 2003 ). Nephrotoxic effects in high-risk patients undergoing angiography . N. Engl. J. Med. 348 ( 6 ): 491 – 499 .
- Brar , S.S. , Shen , A.Y. , Jorgensen , M.B. et al. ( 2008 ). Sodium bicarbonate vs sodium chloride for the prevention of contrast medium-induced nephropathy in patients undergoing coronary angiography: a randomized trial . JAMA 300 ( 9 ): 1038 – 1046 .
- Rudnick , M.R. , Davidson , C. , Laskey , W. et al. ( 2008 ). VALOR trial investigators. Nephrotoxicity of iodixanol versus ioversol in patients with chronic kidney disease: the visipaque angiography/interventions with laboratory outcomes in renal insufficiency (VALOR) trial . Am. Heart J. 156 ( 4 ): 776 – 782 .
- Barrett , B.J. ( 1994 ). Contrast nephrotoxicity . J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 5 ( 2 ): 125 – 137 .
- Kwok , C.S. , Pang , C.L. , Yeong , J.K. , and Loke , Y.K. ( 2013 ). Measures used to treat contrast-induced nephropathy: overview of reviews . Br. J. Radiol. 86 ( 1021 ): 20120272 .
- Pickkers , P. , Mehta , R.L. , Murray , P.T. et al. ( 2018 ). Effect of human recombinant alkaline phosphatase on 7-day creatinine clearance in patients with sepsis-associated acute kidney injury: a randomized clinical trial . JAMA 320 ( 19 ): 1998 – 2009 .
- Pickkers , P. , Heemskerk , S. , Schouten , J. et al. ( 2012 ). Alkaline phosphatase for treatment of sepsis-induced acute kidney injury: a prospective randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial . Crit. Care 16 ( 1 ): R14 .
- Lauschke , A. , Teichgraber , U.K. , Frei , U. , and Eckardt , K.U. ( 2006 ). 'Low-dose' dopamine worsens renal perfusion in patients with acute renal failure . Kidney Int. 69 ( 9 ): 1669 – 1674 .
- Cantarovich , F. , Rangoonwala , B. , Lorenz , H. et al. ( 2004 ). High-dose flurosemide in acute renal failure study group. High-dose furosemide for established ARF: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial . Am. J. Kidney Dis. 44 ( 3 ): 402 – 409 .
- Grams , M.E. , Estrella , M.M. , Coresh , J. et al. ( 2011 ). National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute acute respiratory distress syndrome network. Fluid balance, diuretic use, and mortality in acute kidney injury . Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 6 ( 5 ): 966 – 973 .
- Mehta , R.L. , Pascual , M.T. , Soroko , S. , and Chertow , G.M. , PICARD Study Group . ( 2002 ). Diuretics, mortality, and nonrecovery of renal function in acute renal failure . JAMA 288 ( 20 ): 2547 – 2553 .
- Shilliday , I.R. , Quinn , K.J. , and Allison , M.E. ( 1997 ). Loop diuretics in the management of acute renal failure: a prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized study . Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 12 ( 12 ): 2592 – 2596 .
- Teixeira , C. , Garzotto , F. , Piccinni , P. et al. ( 2013 ). Fluid balance and urine volume are independent predictors of mortality in acute kidney injury . Crit. Care 17 ( 1 ): R14 .
- Uchino , S. , Doig , G.S. , Bellomo , R. et al. ( 2004 ). Diuretics and mortality in acute renal failure . Crit. Care Med. 32 ( 8 ): 1669 – 1677 .
- Brienza , N. , Malcangi , V. , Dalfino , L. et al. ( 2006 ). A comparison between fenoldopam and low-dose dopamine in early renal dysfunction of critically ill patients . Crit. Care Med. 34 ( 3 ): 707 – 714 .
- Bove , T. , Zangrillo , A. , Guarracino , F. et al. ( 2014 ). Effect of fenoldopam on use of renal replacement therapy among patients with acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery: a randomized clinical trial . JAMA 312 ( 21 ): 2244 – 2253 .
- Tumlin , J.A. , Finkel , K.W. , Murray , P.T. et al. ( 2005 ). Fenoldopam mesylate in early acute tubular necrosis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial . Am. J. Kidney Dis. 46 ( 1 ): 26 – 34 .
- Hirschberg , R. , Kopple , J. , Lipsett , P. et al. ( 1999 ). Multicenter clinical trial of recombinant human insulin-like growth factor I in patients with acute renal failure . Kidney Int. 55 ( 6 ): 2423 – 2432 .
- Allgren , R.L. , Marbury , T.C. , Rahman , S.N. et al. ( 1997 ). Anaritide in acute tubular necrosis. auriculin anaritide acute renal failure study group . N. Engl. J. Med. 336 ( 12 ): 828 – 834 .
- Lewis , J. , Salem , M.M. , Chertow , G.M. et al. ( 2000 ). Atrial natriuretic factor in oliguric acute renal failure. anaritide acute renal failure study group . Am. J. Kidney Dis. 36 ( 4 ): 767 – 774 .
- Sward , K. , Valsson , F. , Odencrants , P. et al. ( 2004 ). Recombinant human atrial natriuretic peptide in ischemic acute renal failure: a randomized placebo-controlled trial . Crit. Care Med. 32 ( 6 ): 1310 – 1315 .
- Alobaidi , R. , Basu , R.K. , Goldstein , S.L. , and Bagshaw , S.M. ( 2015 ). Sepsis-associated acute kidney injury . Semin. Nephrol. 35 ( 1 ): 2 – 11 .
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network , Wiedemann HP , Wheeler APet al ( 2006 ). Comparison of two fluid-management strategies in acute lung injury . N. Engl. J. Med. 354 ( 24 ): 2564 – 2575 .
- Alsous , F. , Khamiees , M. , DeGirolamo , A. et al. ( 2000 ). Negative fluid balance predicts survival in patients with septic shock: a retrospective pilot study . Chest 117 ( 6 ): 1749 – 1754 .
- Boyd , J.H. , Forbes , J. , Nakada , T.A. et al. ( 2011 ). Fluid resuscitation in septic shock: a positive fluid balance and elevated central venous pressure are associated with increased mortality . Crit. Care Med. 39 ( 2 ): 259 – 265 .
- Jaffee , W. , Hodgins , S. , and McGee , W.T. ( 2018 ). Tissue edema, fluid balance, and patient outcomes in severe sepsis: an organ systems review . J. Intensive Care Med. 33 ( 9 ): 502 – 509 .
- Sakr , Y. , Rubatto Birri , P.N. , Kotfis , K. et al. ( 2017 ). Higher fluid balance increases the risk of death from sepsis: results from a large international audit . Crit. Care Med. 45 ( 3 ): 386 – 394 .
