Nutrition Supplementation
Stephen J. D. O’Keefe
University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Search for more papers by this authorStephen J. D. O’Keefe
University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Search for more papers by this authorDaniel K. Podolsky MD
President, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Professor of Internal Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX, USA
Search for more papers by this authorMichael Camilleri MD
Executive Dean for Development, Atherton and Winifred W. Bean Professor, Professor of Medicine, Physiology and Pharmacology, Distinguished Investigator, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
Search for more papers by this authorJ. Gregory Fitz MD FAASLD
Executive Vice President for Academic Aff airs and Provost, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dean, Professor of Internal Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX, USA
Search for more papers by this authorAnthony N. Kalloo MD
Professor of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Director, Division of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD, USA
Search for more papers by this authorFergus Shanahan MD
Professor and Chair, Department of Medicine, Director, Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, National University of Ireland, Cork, Ireland
Search for more papers by this authorTimothy C. Wang MD
Chief, Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Silberberg Professor of Medicine, Department of Medicine and Irving Cancer Research Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSummary
This chapter outlines the assessment of the patient for nutrition support and then discusses the most efficacious method(s) to provide the nutrition. The initiation of nutrition support depends upon the type of nutrition that can be delivered (parenteral vs enteral nutrition), the nutritional state of the patient, along with their current disease state. Parenteral nutrition is valuable in breaking the cycle of malabsorption and malnutrition to allow for regeneration of digestive function in extremely depleted patients. Patients with severe short bowel syndrome (SBS) require parenteral support. Enteral nutrition is the standard of care when it comes to delivering nutrition to a patient with severe acute pancreatitis. With the assistance of home care companies, both enteral and parenteral feeding can be managed at home. This excludes well-nourished patients who only required temporary nutritional support during their hospitalization and were able to resume their usual oral intake.
References
- Braunschweig C.L., Levy P., Sheean P.M., et al. Enteral compared with parenteral nutrition: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 2001; 74: 534.
- Casaer M.P., Mesotten D., Hermans G., et al. Early versus late parenteral nutrition in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med 2011; 365: 506.
- Detsky A.S., McLaughlin J.R., Baker J.P., et al. What is subjective global assessment of nutritional status? JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1987; 11: 8.
- Finucane T.E., Christmas C., Travis K. Tube feeding in patients with advanced dementia: a review of the evidence. JAMA 1999; 282: 1365.
- O′Keefe S.J., Buchman A.L., Fishbein T.M., et al. Short bowel syndrome and intestinal failure: consensus definitions and overview. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006; 4: 6.
- O′Keefe S.J., Dicker J. Is plasma albumin concentration useful in the assessment of nutritional status of hospital patients? Eur J Clin Nutr 1988; 42: 41.
- O′Keefe S.J. A guide to enteral access procedures and enteral nutrition. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009; 6: 207.
- Rice T.W., Wheeler A.P., Thompson B.T., et al. Initial trophic vs full enteral feeding in patients with acute lung injury: the EDEN randomized trial. JAMA 2012; 307: 795.
- Toh SY, Zarshenas N, Jorgensen J. Prevalence of nutrient deficiencies in bariatric patients. Nutrition 2009; 25: 1150.
- Dulloo AG, Jacquet J. Adaptive reduction in basal metabolic rate in response to food deprivation in humans: a role for feedback signals from fat stores. Am J Clin Nutr 1998; 68: 599.
- Keys A. Experimental human starvation; general and metabolic results of a loss of one fourth the body weight in six months. Fed Proc 1946; 5: 55.
- Jensen GL, Bistrian B, Roubenoff R, et al. Malnutrition syndromes: a conundrum vs continuum. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2009; 33: 710.
- Hill AA, Plank LD, Finn PJ, et al. Massive nitrogen loss in critical surgical illness: effect on cardiac mass and function. Ann Surg 1997; 226: 191.
- O′Keefe SJ, Moldawer LL, Young VR, et al. The influence of intravenous nutrition on protein dynamics following surgery. Metabolism 1981; 30: 1150.
- O′Keefe SJ, Lee RB, Li J, et al. Trypsin and splanchnic protein turnover during feeding and fasting in human subjects. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2006; 290: G213.
- O′Keefe SJ, Lee RB, Anderson FP, et al. Physiological effects of enteral and parenteral feeding on pancreaticobiliary secretion in humans. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2003; 284: G27.
- O′Keefe SJ, Winter TA, Newton KA, et al. Severe malnutrition associated with alpha-heavy chain disease: response to tetracycline and intensive nutritional support. Am J Gastroenterol 1988; 83: 995.
- Winter TA, Lemmer ER, O′Keefe SJ, et al. The effect of severe undernutrition, and subsequent refeeding on digestive function in human patients. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2000; 12: 191.
- Buchman AL, Moukarzel AA, Bhuta S, et al. Parenteral nutrition is associated with intestinal morphologic and functional changes in humans. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1995; 19: 453.
- O′Keefe SJ, Ou J, Delany JP, et al. Effect of fiber supplementation on the microbiota in critically ill patients. World J Gastroenterol Pathophysiol 2011; 2: 138.
- O′Keefe SJ. Tube feeding, the microbiota, and Clostridium difficile infection. World J Gastroenterol 2010; 16: 139.
- O′Keefe SJD, Ou J, Aufreiter S, et al. Products of the colonic microbiota mediate the effects of diet on colon cancer risk. J Nutr 2009; 139: 2044.
- Don BR, Kaysen G. Serum albumin: relationship to inflammation and nutrition. Semin Dial 2004; 17: 432.
- Doweiko JP, Nompleggi DJ. The role of albumin in human physiology and pathophysiology, Part III: Albumin and disease states. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1991; 15: 476.
- O′Keefe SJ, Dicker J. Is plasma albumin concentration useful in the assessment of nutritional status of hospital patients? Eur J Clin Nutr 1988; 42: 41.
- Detsky AS, McLaughlin JR, Baker JP, et al. What is subjective global assessment of nutritional status? JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1987; 11: 8.
- White JV, Guenter P, Jensen G, et al. Consensus statement: Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition: characteristics recommended for the identification and documentation of adult malnutrition (undernutrition). JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2012; 36: 275.
- O′Keefe SJ, El-Zayadi AR, Carraher TE, et al. Malnutrition and immuno-incompetence in patients with liver disease. Lancet 1980; 2: 615.
- Buzby GP, Mullen JL, Matthews DC, et al. Prognostic nutritional index in gastrointestinal surgery. Am J Surg 1980; 139: 160.
- Johnson LR, Copeland EM, Dudrick SJ, et al. Structural and hormonal alterations in the gastrointestinal tract of parenterally fed rats. Gastroenterology 1975; 68: 1177.
- Kudsk KA, Minard G, Wojtysiak SL, et al. Visceral protein response to enteral versus parenteral nutrition and sepsis in patients with trauma. Surgery 1994; 116: 516.
- Abou-Assi S, Craig K, O′Keefe SJ. Hypocaloric jejunal feeding is better than total parenteral nutrition in acute pancreatitis: results of a randomized comparative study. Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97: 2255.
- Braunschweig CL, Levy P, Sheean PM, et al. Enteral compared with parenteral nutrition: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 2001; 74: 534.
- Veterans Affairs Total Parenteral Nutrition Cooperative Study Group. Perioperative total parenteral nutrition in surgical patients. N Engl J Med 1991; 325: 525.
- Rice TW, Wheeler AP, Thompson BT, et al. Initial trophic vs full enteral feeding in patients with acute lung injury: the EDEN randomized trial. JAMA 2012; 307: 795.
- Casaer MP, Mesotten D, Hermans G, et al. Early versus late parenteral nutrition in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med 2011; 365: 506.
- McClave SA, Martindale RG, Vanek VW, et al. Guidelines for the provision and assessment of nutrition support therapy in the adult critically ill patient: Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (A.S.P.E.N.). JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2009; 33: 277.
- Brozek J, Chapman CB, Keys A. Drastic food restriction; effect on cardiovascular dynamics in normotensive and hypertensive conditions. J Am Med Assoc 1948; 137: 1569.
- Marik PE, Bedigian MK. Refeeding hypophosphatemia in critically ill patients in an intensive care unit. A prospective study. Arch Surg 1996; 131: 1043.
- O′Keefe SJ, Lee RB, Li J, et al. Trypsin secretion and turnover in patients with acute pancreatitis. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2005; 289: G181.
- O′Keefe S, Rolniak S, Raina A, et al. Enteral feeding patients with gastric outlet obstruction. Nutr Clin Pract 2012; 27: 76.
- O′Keefe SJ, Foody W, Gill S. Transnasal endoscopic placement of feeding tubes in the intensive care unit. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2003; 27: 349.
- Pinilla JC, Samphire J, Arnold C, et al. Comparison of gastrointestinal tolerance to two enteral feeding protocols in critically ill patients: a prospective, randomized controlled trial. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2001; 25: 81.
- Montejo JC, Minambres E, Bordeje L, et al. Gastric residual volume during enteral nutrition in ICU patients: the REGANE study. Intensive Care Med 2010; 36: 1386.
- McClave SA, Lukan JK, Stefater JA, et al. Poor validity of residual volumes as a marker for risk of aspiration in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2005; 33: 324.
- Lewis SJ, Andersen HK, Thomas S. Early enteral nutrition within 24 h of intestinal surgery versus later commencement of feeding: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Gastrointest Surg 2009; 13: 569.
- O′Keefe SJ. A guide to enteral access procedures and enteral nutrition. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009; 6: 207.
- Drakulovic MB, Torres A, Bauer TT, et al. Supine body position as a risk factor for nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients: a randomised trial. Lancet 1999; 354: 1851.
- van Nieuwenhoven CA, Vandenbroucke-Grauls C, van Tiel FH, et al. Feasibility and effects of the semirecumbent position to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia: a randomized study. Crit Care Med 2006; 34: 396.
- Bonten MJ, Gaillard CA, van der Hulst R, et al. Intermittent enteral feeding: the influence on respiratory and digestive tract colonization in mechanically ventilated intensive-care-unit patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154: 394.
- Steevens EC, Lipscomb AF, Poole GV, et al. Comparison of continuous vs intermittent nasogastric enteral feeding in trauma patients: perceptions and practice. Nutr Clin Pract 2002; 17: 118.
- Berne JD, Norwood SH, McAuley CE, et al. Erythromycin reduces delayed gastric emptying in critically ill trauma patients: a randomized, controlled trial. J Trauma 2002; 53: 422.
- Booth CM, Heyland DK, Paterson WG. Gastrointestinal promotility drugs in the critical care setting: a systematic review of the evidence. Crit Care Med 2002; 30: 1429.
- O′Keefe S, Foody W, Gill S. Transnasal endoscopic placement of feeding tubes in the intensive care unit. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2003; 27: 349.
- Waitzberg DL, Plopper C, Terra RM. Access routes for nutritional therapy. World J Surg 2000; 24: 1468.
- Kulling D, Bauerfeind P, Fried M. Transnasal versus transoral endoscopy for the placement of nasoenteral feeding tubes in critically ill patients. Gastrointest Endosc 2000; 52: 506.
- Damore LJ 2nd, Andrus CH, Herrmann VM, et al. Prospective evaluation of a new through-the-scope nasoduodenal enteral feeding tube. Surg Endosc 1997; 11: 460.
- Bosco JJ, Gordon F, Zelig MP, et al. A reliable method for the endoscopic placement of a nasoenteric feeding tube. Gastrointest Endosc 1994; 40: 740.
- Patrick PG, Marulendra S, Kirby DF, et al. Endoscopic nasogastric-jejunal feeding tube placement in critically ill patients. Gastrointest Endosc 1997; 45: 72.
- McClave SA, Chang WK. Complications of enteral access. Gastrointest Endosc 2003; 58: 739.
- Gauderer MW, Ponsky JL, Izant RJ Jr. Gastrostomy without laparotomy: a percutaneous endoscopic technique. J Pediatr Surg 1980; 15: 872.
- Gibson SE, Wenig BL, Watkins JL. Complications of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy in head and neck cancer patients. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1992; 101: 46.
- Larson DE, Burton DD, Schroeder KW, et al. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy. Indications, success, complications, and mortality in 314 consecutive patients. Gastroenterology 1987; 93: 48.
- Pender SM, Courtney MG, Rajan E, et al. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy – results of an Irish single unit series. Ir J Med Sci 1993; 162: 452.
- Amann W, Mischinger HJ, Berger A, et al. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG). 8 years of clinical experience in 232 patients. Surg Endosc 1997; 11: 741.
- Rabeneck L, Wray NP, Petersen NJ. Long-term outcomes of patients receiving percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy tubes. J Gen Intern Med 1996; 11: 287.
- Itkin M, DeLegge MH, Fang JC, et al. Multidisciplinary practical guidelines for gastrointestinal access for enteral nutrition and decompression from the Society of Interventional Radiology and American Gastroenterological Association (AGA) Institute, with endorsement by Canadian Interventional Radiological Association (CIRA) and Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiological Society of Europe (CIRSE). Gastroenterology 2011; 141: 742.
- Cairns A, Geraghty J, Al-Rifai A, et al. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy and ventriculoperitoneal shunts: a dangerous combination? Dig Endosc 2009; 21: 228.
- Sane SS, Towbin A, Bergey EA, et al. Percutaneous gastrostomy tube placement in patients with ventriculoperitoneal shunts. Pediatr Radiol 1998; 28: 521.
- McCann RM, Hall WJ, Groth-Juncker A. Comfort care for terminally ill patients. The appropriate use of nutrition and hydration. JAMA 1994; 272: 1263.
- DeLegge MH, McClave SA, DiSario JA, et al. Ethical and medicolegal aspects of PEG-tube placement and provision of artificial nutritional therapy. Gastrointest Endosc 2005; 62: 952.
- Finucane TE, Christmas C, Travis K. Tube feeding in patients with advanced dementia: a review of the evidence. JAMA 1999; 282: 1365.
- Eisen GM, Baron TH, Dominitz JA, et al. Role of endoscopy in enteral feeding. Gastrointest Endosc 2002; 55: 794.
- Calton WC, Martindale RG, Gooden SM. Complications of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy. Mil Med 1992; 157: 358.
- Sangster W, Cuddington GD, Bachulis BL. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy. Am J Surg 1988; 155: 677.
- Ponsky JL, Gauderer MW, Stellato TA. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy. Review of 150 cases. Arch Surg 1983; 118: 913.
- Hull MA, Rawlings J, Murray FE, et al. Audit of outcome of long-term enteral nutrition by percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy. Lancet 1993; 341: 869.
- Gossner L, Keymling J, Hahn EG, et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis in percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG): a prospective randomized clinical trial. Endoscopy 1999; 31: 119.
- Lipp A, Lusardi G. Systemic antimicrobial prophylaxis for percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006;(4):CD005571.
- Regan JP, Dunkin BJ, Cho ES, et al. Impact of upper endoscopic survey during percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy tube placement. Surg Endosc 2002; 16: 112.
- Foutch PG, Talbert GA, Waring JP, et al. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy in patients with prior abdominal surgery: virtues of the safe tract. Am J Gastroenterol 1988; 83: 147.
- McCarter TL, Condon SC, Aguilar RC, et al. Randomized prospective trial of early versus delayed feeding after percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy placement. Am J Gastroenterol 1998; 93: 419.
- Choudhry U, Barde CJ, Markert R, et al. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy: a randomized prospective comparison of early and delayed feeding. Gastrointest Endosc 1996; 44: 164.
- Bechtold ML, Matteson ML, Choudhary A, et al. Early versus delayed feeding after placement of a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy: a meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2008; 103: 2919.
- Grant JP. Comparison of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy with Stamm gastrostomy. Ann Surg 1988; 207: 598.
- Bankhead RR, Fisher CA, Rolandelli RH. Gastrostomy tube placement outcomes: comparison of surgical, endoscopic, and laparoscopic methods. Nutr Clin Pract 2005; 20: 607.
- Adler DG, Gostout CJ, Baron TH. Percutaneous transgastric placement of jejunal feeding tubes with an ultrathin endoscope. Gastrointest Endosc 2002; 55: 106.
- Shike M, Latkany L, Gerdes H, et al. Direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomies for enteral feeding. Gastrointest Endosc 1996; 44: 536.
- Maple JT, Petersen BT, Baron TH, et al. Direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy: outcomes in 307 consecutive attempts. Am J Gastroenterol 2005; 100: 2681.
- Shike M, Schroy P, Ritchie MA, et al. Percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy in cancer patients with previous gastric resection. Gastrointest Endosc 1987; 33: 372.
- Bueno JT, Schattner MA, Barrera R, et al. Endoscopic placement of direct percutaneous jejunostomy tubes in patients with complications after esophagectomy. Gastrointest Endosc 2003; 57: 536.
- Staun M, Pironi L, Bozzetti F, et al. ESPEN guidelines on parenteral nutrition: home parenteral nutrition (HPN) in adult patients. Clin Nutr 2009; 28: 467.
- John BK, Khan MA, Speerhas R, et al. Ethanol lock therapy in reducing catheter-related bloodstream infections in adult home parenteral nutrition patients: results of a retrospective study. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2012; 36: 603.
- Jeppesen PB, Hoy CE, Mortensen PB. Deficiencies of essential fatty acids, vitamin A and E and changes in plasma lipoproteins in patients with reduced fat absorption or intestinal failure. Eur J Clin Nutr 2000; 54: 632.
- Howard L, Ashley C, Lyon D, et al. Autopsy tissue trace elements in 8 long-term parenteral nutrition patients who received the current U.S. Food and Drug Administration formulation. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2007; 31: 388.
- Cheung NW, Napier B, Zaccaria C, et al. Hyperglycemia is associated with adverse outcomes in patients receiving total parenteral nutrition. Diabetes Care 2005; 28: 2367.
- der Voort PH, Feenstra RA, Bakker AJ, et al. Intravenous glucose intake independently related to intensive care unit and hospital mortality: an argument for glucose toxicity in critically ill patients. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2006; 64: 141.
- Lin LY, Lin HC, Lee PC, et al. Hyperglycemia correlates with outcomes in patients receiving total parenteral nutrition. Am J Med Sci 2007; 333: 261.
- Van den Berghe G, Wilmer A, Hermans G, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in the medical ICU. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 449.
- Pasquel FJ, Spiegelman R, McCauley M, et al. Hyperglycemia during total parenteral nutrition: an important marker of poor outcome and mortality in hospitalized patients. Diabetes Care 2010; 33: 739.
- Umpierrez GE, Hellman R, Korytkowski MT, et al. Management of hyperglycemia in hospitalized patients in non-critical care setting: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97: 16.
- Burnes JU, O′Keefe SJ, Fleming CR, et al. Home parenteral nutrition–a 3-year analysis of clinical and laboratory monitoring. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1992; 16: 327.
- Cavicchi M, Beau P, Crenn P, et al. Prevalence of liver disease and contributing factors in patients receiving home parenteral nutrition for permanent intestinal failure. Ann Intern Med 2000; 132: 525.
- Buchman A. Total parenteral nutrition-associated liver disease. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2002; 26(5 Suppl): S43.
- Jain AK, Stoll B, Burrin DG, et al. Enteral bile acid treatment improves parenteral nutrition-related liver disease and intestinal mucosal atrophy in neonatal pigs. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2012; 302: G218.
- Okeefe SJD, Haymond MW, Bennet WM, et al. Long-acting somatostatin analog therapy and protein-metabolism in patients with jejunostomies. Gastroenterology 1994; 107: 379.
- Okeefe SJD, Peterson ME, Fleming CR. Octreotide as an adjunct to home parenteral-nutrition in the management of permanent end-jejunostomy syndrome. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1994; 18: 26.
- Greenberg GR, Wolman SL, Christofides ND, et al. Effect of total parenteral nutrition on gut hormone release in humans. Gastroenterology 1981; 80: 988.
- Kelly DA. Intestinal failure-associated liver disease: what do we know today? Gastroenterology 2006; 130(2 Suppl 1): S70.
- O′Keefe SJ. Bacterial overgrowth and liver complications in short bowel intestinal failure patients. Gastroenterology 2006; 130(2 Suppl 1): S67.
- O′Keefe SJD, Emerling M, Koritsky D, et al. Nutrition and quality of life following small intestinal transplantation. Am J Gastroenterol 2007; 102: 1093.
- O′Keefe SJ, Buchman AL, Fishbein TM, et al. Short bowel syndrome and intestinal failure: consensus definitions and overview. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006; 4: 6.
- Buchman AL. The medical and surgical management of short bowel syndrome. Medgenmed 2004; 6: 12.
- Carbonnel F, Cosnes J, Chevret S, et al. The role of anatomic factors in nutritional autonomy after extensive small bowel resection. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1996; 20: 275.
- Buchman AL. Etiology and initial management of short bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology 2006; 130(2 Suppl 1): S5.
- Vipperla K, O′Keefe SJ. The microbiota and its metabolites in colonic mucosal health and cancer risk. Nutr Clin Pract 2012; 27: 624.
- Bond JH, Currier BE, Buchwald H, et al. Colonic conservation of malabsorbed carbohydrate. Gastroenterology 1980; 78: 444.
- Tappenden KA, Thomson AB, Wild GE, et al. Short-chain fatty acid-supplemented total parenteral nutrition enhances functional adaptation to intestinal resection in rats. Gastroenterology 1997; 112: 792.
- Nordgaard I, Hansen BS, Mortensen PB. Colon as a digestive organ in patients with short bowel. Lancet 1994; 343: 373.
- Harig JM, Soergel KH, Komorowski RA, et al. Treatment of diversion colitis with short-chain-fatty acid irrigation. N Engl J Med 1989; 320: 23.
- Jeejeebhoy KN. Short bowel syndrome: a nutritional and medical approach. CMAJ 2002; 166: 1297.
- Fordtran JS. Stimulation of active and passive sodium absorption by sugars in the human jejunum. J Clin Invest 1975; 55: 728.
- Lennard-Jones JE. Oral rehydration solutions in short bowel syndrome. Clin Ther 1990; 12(Suppl A): 129, discussion 138.
- American Gastroenterological Association. AGA medical position statement: short bowel syndrome and intestinal transplantation. Gastroenterology 2003; 124: 1105.
- Barilla DE, Notz C, Kennedy D, et al. Renal oxalate excretion following oral oxalate loads in patients with ileal disease and with renal and absorptive hypercalciurias. Effect of calcium and magnesium. Am J Med 1978; 64: 579.
- Simko V, McCarroll AM, Goodman S, et al. High-fat diet in a short bowel syndrome. Intestinal absorption and gastroenteropancreatic hormone responses. Dig Dis Sci 1980; 25: 333.
- Joly F, Dray X, Corcos O, et al. Tube feeding improves intestinal absorption in short bowel syndrome patients. Gastroenterology 2009; 136: 824.
- Wales PW, Nasr A, de Silva N, et al. Human growth hormone and glutamine for patients with short bowel syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;(6):CD006321.
- Gleeson MH, Bloom SR, Polak JM, et al. Endocrine tumour in kidney affecting small bowel structure, motility, and absorptive function. Gut 1971; 12: 773.
- Vipperla K, O′Keefe SJ. Teduglutide for the treatment of short bowel syndrome. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2011; 5: 665.
- Jeppesen PB, Gilroy R, Pertkiewicz M, et al. Randomised placebo-controlled trial of teduglutide in reducing parenteral nutrition and/or intravenous fluid requirements in patients with short bowel syndrome. Gut 2011; 60: 902.
- Jeppesen PB, Pertkiewicz M, Messing B, et al. Teduglutide reduces need for parenteral support among patients with short bowel syndrome with intestinal failure. Gastroenterology 2012; 143: 1473.
- O′Keefe SJ, Jeppesen PB, Gilroy R, et al. Safety and efficacy of teduglutide after 52 weeks of treatment in patients with short bowel intestinal failure. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013; 11: 815.
- Buchman AL, Scolapio J, Fryer J. AGA technical review on short bowel syndrome and intestinal transplantation. Gastroenterology 2003; 124: 1111.
- Abu-Elmagd K, Reyes J, Bond G, et al. Clinical intestinal transplantation: a decade of experience at a single center. Ann Surg 2001; 234: 404, discussion 416.
- Grant D, Abu-Elmagd K, Reyes J, et al. 2003 report of the intestine transplant registry: a new era has dawned. Ann Surg 2005; 241: 607.
- O′Keefe SJ, Matarese L. Small bowel transplantation. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2006; 8: 360.
- Rovera GM, Schoen RE, Goldbach B, et al. Intestinal and multivisceral transplantation: dynamics of nutritional management and functional autonomy. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2003; 27: 252.
- Meier R, Ockenga J, Pertkiewicz M, et al. ESPEN Guidelines on Enteral Nutrition: Pancreas. Clin Nutr 2006; 25: 275.
- Banks PA, Freeman ML. Practice Parameters Committee of the American College of G. Practice guidelines in acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2006; 101: 2379.
- Mirtallo JM, Forbes A, McClave SA, et al. International consensus guidelines for nutrition therapy in pancreatitis. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2012; 36: 284.
- Kaushik N, Pietraszewski M, Holst JJ, et al. Enteral feeding without pancreatic stimulation. Pancreas 2005; 31: 353.
- Hegazi R, Raina A, Graham T, et al. Early jejunal feeding initiation and clinical outcomes in patients with severe acute pancreatitis. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2011; 35: 91.
- Al-Omran M, Albalawi ZH, Tashkandi MF, et al. Enteral versus parenteral nutrition for acute pancreatitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;(1):CD002837.
- O′Keefe SJD, Lee RB, Li J, et al. Trypsin secretion and turnover in patients with acute pancreatitis. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2005; 289: G181.
- Segal D, Michaud L, Guimber D, et al. Late-onset complications of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2001; 33: 495.
- Sheykholeslami K, Thomas J, Chhabra N, et al. Metastasis of untreated head and neck cancer to percutaneous gastrostomy tube exit sites. Am J Otolaryngol 2012; 33: 774.
- Maccabee D, Sheppard BC. Prevention of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy stoma metastases in patients with active oropharyngeal malignancy. Surg Endosc 2003; 17: 1678.
- Pickhardt PJ, Rohrmann CA Jr, Cossentino MJ. Stomal metastases complicating percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy: CT findings and the argument for radiologic tube placement. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2002; 179: 735.
-
Hwang JH,
Kim HW,
Kang DH, et al.
A case of endoscopic treatment for gastrocolocutaneous fistula as a complication of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy.
Clin Endoscopy
2012;
45:
95.
10.5946/ce.2012.45.1.95 Google Scholar
- Yamazaki T, Sakai Y, Hatakeyama K, et al. Colocutaneous fistula after percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy in a remnant stomach. Surg Endosc 1999; 13: 280.
- Matarese LE, Jeppesen PB, O′Keefe SJ. Short bowel syndrome in adults: the need for an interdisciplinary approach and coordinated care. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2014; 38: 60S.
- Dowling RH. Compensatory changes in intestinal absorption. Br Med Bull 1967; 23: 275.
- Spiller RC, Trotman IF, Adrian TE, et al. Further characterisation of the ′ileal brake′ reflex in man–effect of ileal infusion of partial digests of fat, protein, and starch on jejunal motility and release of neurotensin, enteroglucagon, and peptide YY. Gut 1988; 29: 1042.
- Matarese LE, Costa G, Bond G, et al. Therapeutic efficacy of intestinal and multivisceral transplantation: survival and nutrition outcome. Nutr Clin Pract 2007; 22: 474.
- Matarese LE. Nutrition and fluid optimization for patients with short bowel syndrome. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2013; 37: 161.