Regulation of Testicular Function: Changes in Reproductive Hormones During Exercise, Recovery, Nutritional Deprivation and Illness
Shalender Bhasin
Search for more papers by this authorShalender Bhasin
Search for more papers by this authorWilliam J. Kraemer
Search for more papers by this authorAlan D. Rogol
Search for more papers by this authorSummary
This chapter contains section titled:
-
Introduction
-
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone secretion by hypothalamic neurons
-
Gonadotropin secretion by pituitary
-
Feedback regulation of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone secretion
-
Ontogenesis of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone secretion during different phases of human life
-
Testosterone secretion, transport and metabolism
-
The biochemical pathways that link energy balance and reproductive axis
-
Historical and experimental illustrations of the link between nutritional status, reproduction and fertility
-
Reproductive dysfunction in acute and chronic illnesses
-
Changes in testosterone levels during exercise
-
References
References
- Ahtiainen, J. P., Pakarinen, A., Kraemer, W. J. & Häkkinen, K. (2003) Acute hormonal and neuromuscular responses and recovery to forced vs. maximum repetitions multiple resistance exercises. International Journal of Sports Medicine 24 (6), 410–418.
- Apter, D., Pakarmen, A. & Vihko, R. (1978) Serum prolactin, FSH and LH during puberty in girls and boys. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 67, 417–423.
- Apter, D., Cacciatore, B., Alfthan, H. & Stenmain, U.-H. (1989) Serum LH concentrations increase 100-fold in females from 7 years of age to adulthood, as measured by time-resolved immunofluorometric assay. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 68, 53–57.
- Arver, S. A., Sinha-Hikim, I., Beall, G. et al. (1999) Dihdrotestosterone and testosterone levels in HIV-infected men. Journal of Andrology 20, 611–618.
- Aubert, M. L., Pierroz, D. D., Gruaz, N. M. et al. (1998) Metabolic control of sexual function and growth: role of neuropeptide Y and leptin. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 140, 107–113.
- Badger, T. M., Edcox, C. E., Meyer, E. R., Bell, R. D. & Cicero, T. J. (1978) Simultaneous changes in tissue and serum levels of LH, FSH and LH/FSH releasing factor after castration in the male rat. Endocrinology 102, 136–141.
- Baenziger, J. U. (1990) The asparagine-linked ohgosaccharides of the glycoprotein hormones. In: Glycoprotein Hormones ( W. W. Chin & L. Boime, eds.). Serono Symposia, Norwell, MA: 11–18.
- Baker, E. R., Mathur, R. S., Kirk, R. S. & Williamson, H. O. (1981) Female runners and secondary amenorrhea: correlation with age, parity, mileage, and plasma hormonal and sex-hormone building concentrations. Fertility and Sterility 36, 183–189.
- Bardin, C. W., Ross, G. T., Rifkind, A. B., Cargille, C. M. & Lipsett, M. B. (1969) Studies of the pituitary Leydig cell axis in young men with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and hyposmia. Comparison with normal men, prepubertal boys and hypopituitary patients. Journal of Clinical Investigation 48, 2046–2056.
- Bates, G. W., Bates, S. R. & Whitworth, N. S. (1982) Reproductive failure in women who practice weight control. Fertility and Sterility 37, 373–378.
- Belchetz, P. E., Plant, T. M., Naka, Y., Keogh, E. J. & Knobil, E. (1978) Hypophyseal responses to continuous and intermittent delivery of hypothalamic GnRH. Science 202, 631–643.
- Bhasin, S., Fielder, T. J. & Swerdloff, R. S. (1987) Testosterone selectively increases serum FSH but not LH in GnRH antagonist treated male rats: evidence for differential regulation of LH and FSH secretion. Biology of Reproduction 37, 55–59.
- Boccabella, A. V. (1963) Reinitiation and restoration of spermatogenesis with testosterone propionate and other hormones after a long term posthypophysectomy regression period. Endocrinology 72, 787–798.
- Brinkmann, A. O. (2001) Molecular basis of androgen insensitivity. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 179 (1–2), 105–109.
- Bross, R., Casaburi, R., Storer, T. W. & Bhasin, S. (1998) Androgen effects on body composition and muscle function: implications for the use of androgens as anabolic agents in sarcopenic states. Bailliere's Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 12 (3), 365–378.
- Bross, R., Singh, A. B. & Bhasin, S. (2000) In: Atlas of Clinical Endocrinology: Human Nutrition and Obesity ( D. Heber, ed.). Blackwell Science, Philadelphia, PA.
- Burger, H. G. & Igarashi, M. (1988) Inhibin: definition and nomenclature, including related substances. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 66, 885–886.
- Burrows, M., Nevill, A. M., Bird, S. & Simpson, D. (2003) Physiological factors associated with low bone mineral density in female endurance runners. British Journal of Sports Medicine 37 (1), 67–71.
- Cai, L. Q., Zhu, Y. S., Katz, M. D. et al. (1996) 5a-reductase-2 gene mutations in the Dominican Republic. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 81 (5), 1730–1735.
- Carani, C. Qin, K., Simoni, M. et al. (1997) Effect of testosterone and estradiol in a man with aromatase deficiency. New England Journal of Medicine 337 (2), 91–95.
- Casaburi, R., Goren, S. & Bhasin, S. (1996) Substantial prevalence of low anabolic hormone levels in COPD patients undergoing rehabilitation. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 153, A128.
- Casella, R., Maduro, M. R., Lipshultz, L. I. & Lamb, D. J. (2001) Significance of the polyglutamine tract polymorphism in the androgen receptor. Urology 58 (5), 651–656.
- Childs, G. V., Ellison, D. G., Foster, L. & Ramaley, J. A. (1981) Postnatal maturation of gonadotropes in the male rat pituitary. Endocrinology 109, 1683–1693.
- Childs, G. V., Llovd, J. M., Unabia, G. et al. (1987) Detection of LHp mRNA in individual gonadotropes after castration: use of a new in situ hybridization method with a photo biotinylated complementary RNA probe. Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md) 1, 926–932.
- Clark, B. J. & Stocco, D. M. (1982) STAR. A tissue specific acute mediator of steroidogenesis. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 91, R1–R6.
- Clarke, I. J. & Cummins, J. T. (1999) Direct pituitary effects of estrogen and progesterone on gonadotropin secretion in the ovariectomized ewe. Neuroendocrinology 39, 267–274.
- Clarke, I. J. & Henry, B. A. (1999) Leptin and reproduction. Biology of Reproduction 4, 48–55.
- Clements, J. A., Reves, F. L., Winter, J. S. D. & Faiman, C. (1980) Ontogenesis of GnRH in the human fetal hypothalamus. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 163, 437–444.
- Cole, L. A., Perini, F., Birken, S. & Ruddon, R. (1984) An oligosacchande of the O-linked type distinguishes the free from the combined form of hCG a subunit. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 122, 1260–1267.
- Conn, P. M., Chafouleas, J. C., Rogers, D. C. & Means, A. R. (1981) Gonadotropin releasing hormone stimulates calmodulin redistribution in rat pituitary. Nature 292, 264–265.
- Conn, P. M., Rogers, D. C. & McNeil, R. (1982) Potency enhancement of gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist GnRH-mediated microaggregation stimulates gonadotropin release. Endocrinology 111, 335–337.
- Coodley, G. O., Loveless, M. O., Nelson, H. D. & Coodley, M. K. (1994). Endocrine function in HIV wasting syndrome. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 7, 46–51.
- Craig, B. W., Brown, R. & Everhart, J. (1989) Effects of progressive resistance training on growth hormone and testosterone levels in young and elderly subjects. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development 49 (2), 159–169.
- Crowley, W. F. Jr., Whitcomb, R. W., Jameson, J. L. et al. (1991) The neuroendocrine control of human reproduction in the male. Recent Progress in Hormone Research 47, 27–62.
- Culler, M. D. & Negro-Vilar, A. (1990) Destruction of testicular Leydig cells reveals a role of endogenous inhibin in regulating follicle-stimulating hormone secretion in the adult male rat. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 70, 89–98.
- Cumming, D. (1996) Exercise-associated amenorrhea, low bone mineral density and oestradiol replacement therapy. Archives of Internal Medicine 156, 2193–2195.
- Cunningham, M. J., Clifton, D. K. & Steiner, R. A. (1999) Leptin's actions on the reproductive axis: perspectives and mechanisms. Biology of Reproduction 60, 216–222.
- Dai, W. S., Kuller, L. H., LaPorte, R. E. et al. (1981) The epidemiology of plasma testosterone levels in middle-aged men. American Journal of Epidemiology 114, 804–816.
- Dobs, A. S., Few, W. L., Blackman, M. R. et al. (1996) Serum hormones in men with human immunodeficiency virus-associated wasting. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 81, 4108–4112.
- Dressendorfer, R. H. & Wade, C. E. (1991) Effects of a 15-d race on plasma steroid levels and leg muscle fitness in runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 23 (8), 954–958.
- Drinkwater, B. L., Nilson, K., Chestnut, C. H. et al. (1984) Bone mineral content of amenorrheic and eumenorrheic women. New England Journal of Medicine 311, 2777–2782.
- Dufau, M. L. (1988) Endocrine regulation and communicating functions of the Leydig cell. Annual Review of Physiology 50, 483–508.
- Feldman, H. A., Longcope, C., Derby, C. A. et al. (2002) Age trends in the level of serum testosterone and other hormones in middle-aged men: longitudinal results from the Massachusetts male aging study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 87, 589–598.
- Ferrini, R. L. & Barrett-Connor, E. (1998) Sex hormones and age: a cross-sectional study of testosterone and estradiol and their bioavailable fractions in community-dwelling men. American Journal of Epidemiology 147, 750–754.
- Fiddes, J. C. & Talmadge, K. (1984) Structure, expression and evolution of the genes for the human glycoprotein hormones. Recent Progress in Hormone Research 40, 43–78.
- Finkel, D. M., Phillips, J. L. & Snyder, P. J. (1985) Stimulation of spermatogenesis by gonadotropins in men with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. New England Journal of Medicine 313, 651–655.
- Finkelstein, J. S., O'Dea, St. L, Whitcomb, R. W. & Crowley, W. E.Jr. (1991a) Sex steroid control of gondotropin secretion in the human male II. Effects of estradiol administration in normal and GnRH deficient men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 73, 621–628.
- Finkelstein, J. S., Whitcomb, R. W., O'Dea, St. L. et al. (1991b) Sex steroid control of gonadotropin secretion in the human male I. Effects of testosterone administration in normal and GnRH deficient men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 73, 609–620.
- Foster, D. L. & Nagatani, S. (1999) Physiological perspectives on leptin as a regulator of reproduction: role in timing puberty. Biology of Reproduction 60, 205–215.
- Frisch, R. E. (1989) Body weight and reproduction. Science 246, 432–436.
- Frisch, R. E. & McArthur, J. W. (1974) Menstrual cycles: fatness as a determinant of minimum weight for height necessary for their maintenance or onset. Science 185, 949–995.
- Frisch, R. E. & Revelle, R. L. (1970) Height and weight at menarche and a hypothesis of critical body weights and adolescent events. Science 169, 397–398.
- Frisch, R. E., Wushak, G. & Vincent, L. (1980) Delayed menarche and amenorrhea of ballet dancers. New England Journal of Medicine 303, 17–19.
- Frost, H. M. (1992) The role of changes in mechanical usage set points in the pathogenesis of osteoporosis. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 7, 253–261.
- Gharib, S. D., Bowers, S. M., Need, L. R. & Chin, W. W. (1986) Regulation of rat LH subunit mRNAs by gonadal steroid hormones. Journal of Clinical Investigation 77, 582–589.
- Gharib, S. D., Wierman, M. E., Badger, T. M. & Chin, W. W. (1987) Sex steroid hormone regulation of folicle-stimulating hormone subunit messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) by gonadal steroid hormones. Journal of Clinical Investigation 80, 294–299.
- Gharib, S. D., Wierman, M. E., Shupnik, M. A. & Chin, W. W. (1990) Molecular biology of the pituitary gonadotropins. Endocrine Reviews 11, 177–199.
-
Glass, A. R. &
Denster, P. A.
(1987)
Amenorrhea in Olympic marathon runners.
Fertility and Sterility
4,
740–745.
10.1016/S0015-0282(16)59522-3 Google Scholar
- Gormley, G. & Rittmaster, R. (1992) Effect of finasteride, a 5-a reductase inhibitor, on serum gonadotropins in normal men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 75, 484–488.
- Gray, A., Berlin, J. A., McKinlay, J. B. & Longcope, C. (1991) An examination of research design effects on the association of testosterone and male aging: results of a meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 44, 671–684.
- Grinspoon, S., Corcoran, C., Lee, K. et al. (1996) Loss of lean body and muscle mass correlates with androgen levels in hypogondal men with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and wasting. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 81, 4051–4058.
- Grossman, M., Weintraub, B. D. & Szkudlinski, M. W. (1997) Novel insights into the molecular mechanisms of human thyrotropin action: structural, physiological, and therapeutic implications for the glycoprotein hormone family. Endocrine Reviews 18, 476–501.
- Grumbach, M. M. & Auchus, R. J. (1999) Estrogen: consequences and implications of human mutations in synthesis and action. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 84 (12), 4677–4694.
- Häkkinen, K., Pakarinen, A., Alen, M. & Komi, P. V. (1985) Serum hormones during prolonged training of neuromuscular performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology 53 (4), 287–293.
- Haisenleder, D. J., Katt, J. A., Ortolano, G. A. et al. (1988) Influence of GnRH pulse amplitude, frequency and treatment duration on the regulation of LH subunit mRNAs and LH secretion. Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md) 12, 338–343.
- Haisenleder, D. J., Dalkin, A. C., Ortolano, G. X., Marshall, J. C. & Shupnik, M. A. (1991) A pulsatile GnRH stimulus is required to increase transcription of the gonadotropin subunit genes: evidence for differential regulation of transcription by pulse frequency in vivo. Endocrinology 128, 509–517.
- Hall, S. H. & Miller, W. L. (1986) Regulation of ovine pituitary glycoprotein hormone a subunit mRNA by 17-p-estradiol in cell culture. Biology of Reproduction 34, 533–542.
- Handelsman, D. J. & Dong, Q. (1993) Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis in chronic renal failure. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America 22, 145–161.
- Harman, S. M., Tsitouras, P. D., Cost, P. T. & Blackman, M. R. (1982) Reproductive hormones in aging men II. Basal pituitary gonadotropins and gonadotropin responses to LHRH. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 54, 547–551.
- Harman, S. M., Metter, E. J., Tobin, J. D., Pearson, J. & Blackman, M. R. (2001) Longitudinal effects of aging on serum total and free testosterone levels in healthy men. Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 86, 724–731.
- Heinonen, A., Oja, P., Kannus, P. et al. (1995) Bone mineral density in female athletes representing sports with different loading characteristics of the skeleton. Bone 17, 197–203.
- Horton, R. (1978) Sex steroid production and secretion in the male. Andrologia 10 (3), 183–194.
- Huhtaniemi, I. & Toppari, J. (1995) Endocrine, paracrine and autocrine regulation of testicular steroidogenesis. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 377, 33–54.
- Husmann, D. A. (1991) Inhibition of testicular descent in the rat by anti androgens. Endocrinology 73, 1162A.
- Ingraham, H. A., Chen, R. P., Mangalam, H. J. et al. (1988) A tissue-specific transcription factor containing a homeodomain specifies a pituitary phenotype. Cell 55, 519–529.
- Jakachi, R. I., Kelch, R. P., Sander, S. E. et al. (1982) Pulsatile release of LH in children. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 55, 453–458.
- Johansen, K. L., Chertow, G. M., da Silva, M., Carey, S. & Painter, P. (2001) Determinants of physical performance in ambulatory patients on hemodialysis. Kidney International 60 (4), 1586–1591.
- Jones, M. E., Thorburn, A. W., Britt, K. L. et al. (2000) Aromatase-deficient (ArKO) mice have a phenotype of increased adiposity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 97 (23), 12735–12740.
- Kaufman, J. M. & Vermeulen, A. (1997) Declining gonadal function in elderly men. Bailliere's Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 11, 289–309.
- Keman, D., Madigan, M. B., Bardin, W. C. & Chen, L.-C. C. (1989) Expression and regulation of testicular inhibin a subunit gene in vivo and in vitro. Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md) 3, 29–35.
-
Keys, A.,
Brozek, J.,
Henschel, A. et al.
(1950)
The Biology of Human Starvation.
University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
10.5749/j.ctv9b2tqv Google Scholar
- Kim, W. H., Swerdloff, R. S. & Bhasin, S. (1988a) Regulation of a and rat LH p mRNAs during GnRH agonist treatment in vivo in the male rat. Endocrinology 123, 2111–2116.
- Kim, W. H., Yuan, Q. X., Swerdloff, R. S. & Bhasin, S. (1988b) Regulation of a and LH p mRNAs during stimulatory and downregulatory phases of GnRH action. Biology of Reproduction 39, 847–853.
- Knobil, E. (1980) The neuroendocrine control of the menstrual cycle. Recent Progress in Hormone Research 36, 53–88.
- Kopple, J. D. (1999) Pathophysiology of protein-energy wasting in chronic renal failure. Journal of Nutrition 129 (1S suppl. ), 247S-251S.
- Kornfeld, R. & Kornfeld, S. (1976) Comparative aspects of glycoprotein structure. Annual Review of Biochemisty 45, 217–237.
- Kovacs, K. & Horvath, E. (1985) Morphology of adenohyphyseal cells and, pituitary adenomas. In: The Pituitary Gland ( L. Martini, eds.). Raven Press, New York: 25-56.
- Krummen, L. A., Toppari, J., Kim, W. H. et al. (1989) Regulation of testicular inhibin subunit messenger ribonucleic acid levels in vivo; effects of hypophysectomy and selective follicle-stimulating hormone replacement. Endocrinology 125, 1630–1637.
- Krummen, L. A., Morelos, B. S. & Bhasin, S. (1990) The role of LH in regulation of testicular inhibin a and p B subunit mRNAs in immature and adult animals. Endocrinology 127, 1097–1104.
- Larrea, F., Carino, C., Hardy, D. O., Musto, N. A. & Catterall, J. F. (1995) Genetic variations in human testosterone-estradiol binding globulin. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 53 (1–6), 553–559.
- Layman, L. C. (1999) Mutations in human gonadotropin genes and their physiologic significance in puberty and reproduction. Fertility and Sterility 71 (2), 201–218.
- Lee, D. K. & Chang, C. (2003) Endocrine mechanisms of disease: expression and degradation of androgen receptor: mechanism and clinical implication. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 88 (9), 4043–4054.
- Lee, P. A. (1988) Pubertal neuroendocrine maturation: early differentiation and stages of development. Adolescent and Pediatric Gynecology 1, 3–14.
- Lee, P. A., Yenakis, T., Winer, J. & Matsenbaugh, S. (1976) Puberty in girls: correlation of serum levels of gonadotropins, prolactin, androgens, estrogens and progestins with physical changes. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 43, 775–784.
- Legouis, R., Hardelin, J. P., Levilliers, J. et al. (1991) The candidate gene for the X-linked Kallmann syndrome encodes a protein related to adhesion molecules. Cell 67 (2), 423–435.
- Ling, N., Ying, S.-Y., Ueno, N. et al. (1985) Isolation and partial characterization of a Mr 32000 protein with inhibin activity from porcine follicular fluid. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 182, 7217–7221.
- Longcope, C. (1973) The effect of human chorionic gonadotropin on plasma steroid levels in young and old men. Steroids 21, 583–592.
- Longcope, C. & Fineberg, S. E. (1985) Production and metabolism of dihydrotestosterone in peripheral tissues. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 23 (4), 415–419.
- Loucks, A. B., Mortola, J. F., Girton, L. & Yen, S. S. C. (1989) Alterations in the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in athletic women. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 68, 402–411.
- McCann, S. M., Kimura, M., Walczewska, A. et al. (1998) Hypothalamic control of FSH and LH by FSH-EF, LHRH, cytokines, leptin and nitric oxide. Neuroimmunomodulation 5, 193–202.
- MacConnie, S. E., Barkan, A., Lampman, R. M. et al. (1986) Decreased hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing horomone secretion in male marathon runners. New England Journal of Medicine 315, 411–417.
- McCullagh, D. R. (1932) Dual endocrine activity of the testes. Science 76, 19–23.
- McFarland, K. C., Sprengel, R., Phillip, H. et al. (1989) Lutropin/ choriogonadotropin receptor: an unusual member of the G-protein coupled receptor family. Science 245, 494–499.
- McLachlan, R. I., Matsumoto, A. M., Burger, H. G., de Kretser, D. M. & Bremmer, W. J. (1988) Relative roles of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone in the control of inhibin secretion in normal men. Journal of Clinical Investigation 82, 880–884.
- McPhaul, M. J., Marcelli, M., Zoppi, S., Griffin, J. E. & Wilson, J. D. (1993) Genetic basis of endocrine disease. 4. The spectrum of mutations in the androgen receptor gene that causes androgen resistance. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 76 (1), 17–23.
- Mahna, R. M., Harper, A. B., Avent, H. H. & Campbell, D. E. (1973) Age at menarche in athletes and non-athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports 5, 11–13.
- Marshall, G. R., Wickings, E. J., Ludecke, D. K. & Nieschlag, E. (1983) Stimulation of spermatogenesis in stalk-sectional rhesus monkeys by testosterone alone. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 57, 152–159.
- Mason, A. J., Hayflick, J. S., Ling, N. et al. (1985) Complementary DNA sequences of ovarian follicular fluid inhibin show precursor structure and homology with transforming growth factor-p. Nature 318, 659–663.
- Mather, J. P., Attie, K. M., Woodruff, T. K., Rice, G. C. & Phillips, D. M. (1990) Activin stimulates spermatogonial proliferation in germ-Sertoli cell co-cultures from immature rat testis. Endocrinology 127, 3206–3214.
- Matsumoto, A. M. (2002) Andropause: clinical implications of the decline in serum testosterone levels with aging in men. Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 57 (2), M76-M99.
- Matsumoto, A. M. & Bremner, W. J. (1984) Modulation of pulsatile gonadotropin secretion by testosterone in men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 58, 609–614.
- Matsumoto, A. M., Karpas, A. E., Paulsen, C. A. & Bremner, W. J. (1983) Reinitiation of sperm production in gonadotropin-suppressed normal men by administration of FSH. Journal of Clinical Investigation 72, 1005–1015.
- Matsumoto, A. M., Paulsen, C. A. & Bremner, W. J. (1984) Stimulation of sperm production by human LH in gonadotropin suppressed normal men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 59, 882–887.
- Mendonca, B. B., Inacio, M., Costa, E. M. et al. (1996) Male pseudohermaphroditism due to steroid 5 a-reductase 2 deficiency. Diagnosis, psychological evaluation, and management. Medicine; Analytical Reviews of General Medicine, Neurology, Psychiatry, Dermatology, and Pediatrics 75 (2), 64–76.
- Mercer, J. E., Clements, J. E., Funder, J. W. & Clarke, I. J. (1988) LH (3 mRNA levels are regulated primarily by GnRH and not by negative estrogen feedback on the pituitary. Neuroendocrinology 47, 63–66.
- Mohamed-Ali, V., Pinkney, J. H. & Coppack, S. W. (1998) Adipose tissue as an endocrine and paracrine organ. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 22, 1145–1158.
- Mori, M. & Marsh, J. M. (1982) The site of LH stimulation of steroidogenesis in mitochondria of rat corpus luteum. Journal of Biological Chemistry 257, 6178–6183.
- Moriarty, G. C. (1973) Adenohypophysis: ultrastructural cytochemistry. A review. Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry 21, 855–892.
- Morley, J. E., Kaiser, F. E., Perry, H. M., 3rd et al. (1997) Longitudinal changes in testosterone, LH, and FSH in healthy, older men. Metabolism 46, 410–413.
- Najmabadi, H., Rosenberg, L. A., Yuan, Q. X. et al. (1993) Transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of intribin a subunit gene expression in rat sertoli cell by 8-bromo cAMP. Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md) 7, 469–476.
- Neill, J. D., Patton, J. M., Daily, R. A., Tsour, R. C. & Tindall, G. T. (1977) LHRH in pituitary stalk brood of rhesus monkeys: relationship to level of LH release. Endocrinology 101, 430–434.
- Pardridge, W. M. (1987) Plasma protein-mediated transport of steroid and thyroid hormones. American Journal of Physiology 252 (2 Pt. 1), E157-E164.
- Parks, J. S., Brown, M. R., Hurley, D. L., Phelps, C. J. & Wajnrajch, M. P. (1999) Heritable disorders of pituitary development. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 84, 4362–4370.
- Penny, R., Goldstein, I. P. & Frasier, S. D. (1978) Gonadotropin excretion and body composition. Pediatrics 61, 294–300.
- Pincus, S. M., Veldhuis, J. D., Mulligan, T., Iranmanesh, A. & Evans, W. S. (1997) Effects of age on the irregularity of LH and FSH serum concentrations in women and men. American Journal of Physiology 273 (5 Pt 1), E989-E995.
- Pirke, K. M. & Doerr, P. (1973) Age related changes and interrelationships between plasma testosterone, oestradiol and testosterone-binding globulin in normal adult males. Acta Endocrinologica 74, 792–800.
- Prince, F. P. (2001) The triphasic nature of Leydig cell development in humans, and comments on nomenclature. Journal of Endocrinology 168 (2), 213–216.
- Rebar, R., Judd, H. L., Yen, S. S. C. et al. (1976) Characterization of the inappropriate gonadotropin secretion in polyvistic ovary syndrome. Journal of Clinical Investigation 57, 1320–1325.
- Remes, K., Kuoppasalmi, K. & Adlercreutz, H. (1979) Effect of long-term physical training on plasma testosterone, androstenedione, luteinizing hormone and sex-hormone-binding globulin capacity. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 39 (8), 743–749.
- Rietschel, P., Corcoran, C., Stanley, T. et al. (2000) Prevalence of hypogonadism among men with weight loss related to human immunodeficiency virus infection who were receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clinical Infectious Diseases 31 (5), 1240–1244.
- Rivier, C. Rivier, J. & Vale, W. (1986) Inhibin mediated feedback control of FSH secretion in the female rat. Science 234, 205–208.
- Rock, C. L., Gorenflo, D. W., Drewnowski, A. & Demitrack, M. A. (1996) Nutritional characteristics, eating pathology, and hormonal status in young women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 64, 566–571.
-
Rommerts, F. F. G.
(2004)
Testosterone: an overview of biosynthesis transport metabolism and non-genomic actions. In:
Testosterone: Action, Deficiency and Substitution
( E. Nieschlag &
H. M. Behr, eds).
Cambridge University Press, New York:
1–37.
10.1017/CBO9780511545221.002 Google Scholar
- Rosner, W. (1991) Plasma steroid-binding proteins. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America 20 (4), 697–720.
-
Russell, D. W. &
Wilson, J. D.
(1994)
Steroid 5-a reductase: two gene/two enzymes.
Annual Review of Biochemistry
63,
25–61.
10.1146/annurev.bi.63.070194.000325 Google Scholar
- Ryan, R. J., Keutmann, H. T., Charlesworth, M. C. et al. (1987) Structure function relationships of gonadotropins. Recent Progress in Hormone Research 43, 383–429.
- Saade, G., London, D. R. & Clayton, R. N. (1989) The interaction of GnRH and estradiol on LH and prolactin gene expression in hypogonadal (hpg) mice. Endocrinology 124, 1744–1753.
- Sairam, M. R. (1983) Gonadotropic hormones: relationship between structure and function with emphasis on antagonists. In: Hormonal Proteins and Peptides, vol. 11 ( C. H. Li, ed.). Academic Press, New York: 1–79.
- Santen, R. J. (1975) Is aromatization of testosterone to estradiol required for inhibition of LH secretion in men?. Journal of Clinical Investigation 56, 1555–1563.
- Scheckter, C. B., Matsumoto, A. M. & Bremner, W. J. (1989) Testosterone administration inhibits gonadotropin secretion by an effect directly at the human pituitary. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 68, 397–401.
- Schwanzel-Fukuda, M. & Pfaff, D. W. (1989) Origin of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone neurons. Nature 338, 161–163.
- Schwartz, M. W., Baskin, D. G., Kaiyala, K. J. & Woods, S. C. (1999) Model for the regulation of energy balance and adiposity by the central nervous system. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69, 584–596.
- Scully, K. M. & Rosenfeld, M. G. (2002) Pituitary development: regulatory codes in mammalian organogenesis. Science 295 (5563), 2231–2235.
- Seth, A., Stanley, S., Jethwa, P. et al. (2004) Galanin-like peptide stimulates the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone in vitro and may mediate the effects of leptin on the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis. Endocrinology 145 (2), 743–750.
- Sharpe, R. M. (1987) Testosterone and spermatogenesis. Journal of Endocrinology 113, 1–2.
- Sharpe, R. M., Donachie, K. & Cooper, L. (1988) Reevaluation of intratesticular level of testosterone required for quantitative maintenance of spermatogenesis in the rat. Journal of Endocrinology 117, 19–26.
- Shupnik, M. A. (1990) Effects of gonadotropin-releasing hormone on rat gonadotropin gene transcription in vitro: requirement for pulsatile administration for luteinizing hormone-p gene stimulation. Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md) 4 (10), 1444–1450.
- Shupnik, M. A., Gharib, S. D. & Chin, W. W. (1989) Divergent effects of estradiol on gonadotropin gene transcription in pituitary fragments. Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md) 3, 474–478.
- Simon, D., Preziosi, P., Barrett-Connor, E. et al. (1992) The influence of aging on plasma sex hormones in men: the Telecom Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 135, 783–791.
- Simpson, E. R. (1979) Cholesterol side chain cleavage, cytochrome P-450, and the control of steroidogenesis. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 13, 213–227.
- Singh, A. B., Norris, K., Modi, N. et al. (2001) Pharmacokinetics of a transdermal testosterone system in men with end stage renal disease receiving maintenance hemodialysis and healthy hypogonadal men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 86 (6), 2437–2445.
- Sizonenko, P. C. (1979) Endocrinology in preadolescents and adolescents 1. Hormonal changes during normal puberty. American Journal of Diseases of Children 132, 704–712.
- Skarda, S. T. & Burge, M. R. (1998) Prospective evaluation of risk factors for exercise-induced hypogonadism in male runners. Western Journal of Medicine 169, 9–12.
- Smilios, I., Pilianidis, T., Karamouzis, M. & Tokmakidis, S. P. (2003) Hormonal responses after various resistance exercise protocols. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 35 (4), 644–654.
- Smith, E. P., Boyd, J., Frank, G. R. et al. (1994) Estrogen resistance caused by a mutation in the estrogen receptor gene in a man. New England Journal of Medicine 331, 1056–1061.
- Spratt, D. I., Chin, W. W., Ridgeway, E. C. & Crowley, W. F.Jr. (1986) Administration of low dose pulsatile GnRH administration to GnRH deficient men regulates free a subunit secretion. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 62, 102–108.
- Sprengel, R., Braun, T., Nikofics, K., Segaloff, D. L. & Seeburg, P. H. (1990) The testicular receptor for FSH: structure and functional expression of cloned cDNA. Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md) 4, 525–530.
- Stager, K., Behr, R., Kleiner, I., Weinbauer, G. F., Bergmann, M. (2004) Expression of activator of CREM in the testis (ALP) during normal and impaired spermatosis genesis: correlation with CREM expression. Molecular Human Reproduction 10, 129–135.
- Stein, Z., Susser, M., Saenger, G. & Marolla, F. (1973) Famine and Human Development: The Dutch Hunger Winter of 1944–1945. Oxford University Press, New York.
- Steinberger, E. (1971) Hormonal control of mammalian spermatogenesis. Physiological Reviews 51, 1–22.
- Steinberger, E. & Chowdhury, M. (1977) The effects of testosterone propionate and estradiol benzoate on the in vitro synthesis of FSH. Biology of Reproduction 16, 403–408.
- Swerdloff, R. S., Campfield, L. A., Paiacios, A. & McClure, R. D. (1979) Suppression of human spermatogenesis by depot androgen: potential for male contraception. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 11, 663–670.
- Tenover, J. S., Matsumoto, A. M., Plymate, S. R. & Bremner, W. J. (1987) The effects of aging in normal men on bioavailable testosterone and luteinizing hormone secretion: response to clomiphene citrate. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 65, 1118–1126.
- Truls, R., Trine, B. & Jostein, H. (2000) Hormonal responses to high-and moderate-intensity strength exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology 82, 121–128.
- Ueno, N., Ling, N., Yng, S. Y. et al. (1987) Isolation and partial characterization of follistatin, a novel Mr 35000 monomeric protein which inhibits the release of FSH. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 84, 8282–8286.
- Urban, R. J., Evans, W. S., Rogol, A. D. et al. (1988) Contemporary aspects of discrete peak detection algorithms 1. The paradigm of the LH pulse signal in men. Endocrine Reviews 9, 3–37.
- Vale, W., Rivier, C., Hsueh, A. J. W. et al. (1988) Chemical and biological characterization of the inhibin family of protein hormones. Recent Progress in Hormone Research 44, 1–34.
- Van Der Spruy, Z. M. (1985) Nutrition and reproduction. Clinics in Obstetrics and Gynaecology 12, 579–604.
- Van Der Walt, L. A., Wilmsen, E. N. & Jenkins, T. (1978) Unusual sex hormone patterns among desert-dwelling hunter gatherers. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 46, 658–663.
- Veldhuis, J. D., Rogol, A. D., Samojlik, E. & Ertel, N. H. (1984) Role of endogenous opiates in the expression of negative feedback actions of androgen and estrogen on pulsatile properties of LH secretion in man. Journal of Clinical Investigation 74, 47–55.
- Veldhuis, J. D., Evans, W. S., Demers, L. M. et al. (1985) Altered neuroendocrine regulation of gonadotropin secretion in women distance runners. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 61, 557–563.
- Vermeulen, A. (1988) Physiology of the testosterone-binding globulin in man. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 538, 103–111.
- Villanueva, A. L., Schlosser, C., Hopper, B. et al. (1986) Increased cortisol production in women runners. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 63, 133–136.
- Warren, M. P. (1980) The effects of exercise on pubertal progression and reproductive functions in girls. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 51, 1150–1157.
- Weiss, J., Crowley, W. F.Jr. & Jameson, J. L. (1992) Pulsatile gonadotropin-releasing hormone modifies polyadenylation of gonadotropin subunit messenger ribonucleic acids. Endocrinology 130, 415–420.
- Whitcomb, R. W., O'Dea, St. L., Finkelstein, J. S., Heavern, D. M. & Crowley, W. F.Jr. (1990) Utility of free a subunit as an alternative neuroendocrine marker of GnRH stimulation of the gonadotroph in the human; evidence from normal and GnRH-deficient men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 70, 1654–1661.
- Wierman, M. E. & Wang, C. (1990) Androgen selectively stimulates FSH p mRNA levels after GnRH antagonist administration. Biology of Reproduction 42, 563–571.
- Wierman, M. E., Rivier, J. E. & Wang, C. (1989) GnRH dependent regulation of gonadotropin subunit mRNA levels in the rat. Endocrinology 124, 272–278.
- Wilson, J. D., Griffin, J. E. & Russell, D. W. (1993) Steroid 5 a-reductase 2 deficiency. Endocrine Reviews 14 (5), 577–593.
- Winter, J. S. D., Faiman, C., Hobson, W. et al. (1975) Pituitary-gonadal relations in infancy 1. Patterns of serum gonadotropin levels from birth to 4 years of age in man and chimpanzee. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 40, 545–557.
- Winter, J. S. D., Hughes, I. A., Reyes, F. L. & Faiman, C. (1976) Pituitary-gonadal relations in infancy: patterns of serum gonadal steroid concentrations in man from birth to 2 years of age. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 42, 679–686.
- Winters, S. J., Sherins, R. J. & Loriaux, D. L. (1979) Studies on the role of sex steroids in the feedback control of gonadotropin concentration in men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 48, 553–558.
- Yamaji, T., Dierschke, D. J., Bhattacharya, A. N. & Knobil, E. (1992) The negative feedback control by estradiol and progesterone of LH secretion in the ovariectormized rhesus monkey. Endocrinology 90, 771–778.
- Yamamoto, M., Diebell, N. D. & Bogdanove, E. M. (1970) Analysis of initial and delayed effects of orchidectomy and ovariectomy on pituitary and serum LH levels in adult and immature rats. Endocrinology 86, 1102–1111.
- Ying, S.-Y. (1988) Inhibins, activins and folbstatins: gonadal proteins modulating the secretion of FSH. Endocrine Reviews 9, 267–293.
- Yuan, Q. X., Swerdloff, R. S. & Bhasin, S. (1988) Differential regulation of rat LH a and p subunits during the stimulatory and downregulatory phases of GnRH action. Endocrinology 122, 504–510.
- Zhou, Z.-X., Wong, C.-I., Sar, M. & Wilson, E. M. (1994) The androgen receptor: an overview. Recent Progress in Hormone Research 49, 249–274.
- Zmeili, S. M., Papavasiliou, S. S., Thorner, M. O. et al. (1986) Alpha and LH p subunit mRNAs during the rat estrous cycle. Endocrinology 119, 1867–1869.
- Zmuda, J. M., Cauley, J. A., Kriska, A. et al. (1997) Longitudinal relation between endogenous testosterone and cardiovascular disease risk factors in middle-aged men. A 13-year follow-up of former Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial participants. American Journal of Epidemiology 146, 609–617.