Strategies for a resilient, sustainable, and equitable Mississippi River basin
Abstract
The Mississippi River and its vast basin play a critical role in supporting ecological, economic, and social systems in the United States. However, managing this extensive watershed has become increasingly challenging due to a range of complex issues. This paper explores the historical developments in the watershed management of the Mississippi River, including navigation, flood control, sediment management, water supply, and pollution control. The current issues affecting the resilience, sustainability, and equity of the river and its basin are analyzed, leading to the formulation of a vision for its future. To realize this vision, various strategies are proposed, including embracing integrated water resources management, leveraging information technologies, synergizing green, grey, and blue infrastructure measures, and preparing for extreme weather events. Additionally, addressing equity issues, recognizing the water–energy–food nexus, exploring the river as a carbon capture reservoir, and investigating geoengineering concepts are also discussed. The paper concludes with essential research needs and provides recommendations to foster a resilient, sustainable, and equitable Mississippi River and its basin.
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Strategies for a resilient, sustainable, and equitable Mississippi River basin
by Qizhong Guo1 INTRODUCTION
The Mississippi River basin, extending over 31 US states and two Canadian provinces, covers 3.2 million square kilometers and constitutes one of the world's largest watersheds. It represents 41% of the contiguous United States, serving as a crucial lifeline for millions of people, diverse industries, and innumerable ecosystems, forming a delicate equilibrium between human necessities and environmental conservation.
Managing this complex basin has been an intricate undertaking, shaped by varying needs and priorities across different periods and communities. Historically, the basin has been vital for North America's growth, acting as a trade conduit, a water and food source, and a driver for economic and social development. Additionally, its varying landscapes, from mountains to plains, contribute to its rich biodiversity.
Challenges in managing this basin are considerable, encompassing navigation, flood control, sediment management, water supply, and pollution control. This demands a delicate balance, intertwined with socioeconomic and political aspects, requiring coordination across multiple jurisdictions.
Adding to these difficulties is climate change, intensifying extreme weather events like floods, droughts, and heat waves (National Climate Assessment, 2018). These pose risks to communities, ecosystems, and economies, indicating that the conventional management approach is unsustainable.
There's a growing consensus for transformative change toward more resilient, sustainable, and equitable watershed management (Fedelea et al., 2019; Gleick, 2000; National Research Council, 1999; Ostrom, 2009; Pahl-Wostl, 2007; Wang & He, 2022). This paper explores this vital theme, tracing the basin's historical management trajectory, and providing insights into the past, present, and future. By emphasizing current challenges, it outlines a pathway toward improved watershed management. This study aims to guide policy, inform practice, and encourage further research, offering valuable lessons for this essential field.
2 GEOGRAPHY OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AND ITS VAST WATERSHED
The Mississippi River, stretching over 3730 km, is an iconic symbol of US geography and historical significance. It is the second-longest river in the country, only surpassed by its main tributary, the Missouri River. Originating from Lake Itasca in Northern Minnesota, the river flows southward through 10 states before emptying into the Gulf of Mexico. Historically, it has been a vital transportation artery, shaping the development of cities and towns along its banks.
The river's vast watershed, the Mississippi River basin, extends to the Rocky Mountains in the west and the Appalachian Mountains in the east. It comprises one of North America's most extensive drainage systems, encompassing countless tributaries, streams, and creeks. Geographically, the river is divided into three key sections: the Upper, Middle, and Lower Mississippi, each characterized by distinct features and flow characteristics.
The Mississippi River basin boasts immense agricultural productivity, making it the agricultural heartland of the United States, facilitating the growth of vital crops such as corn, soybeans, and cotton. However, agricultural intensity has raised environmental sustainability concerns, such as nutrient runoff and the formation of a “dead zone” in the Gulf of Mexico, threatening marine life.
In addition to its economic significance, the river and its basin harbor a rich mosaic of biodiversity and cultural heritage, providing refuge for various wildlife and playing a pivotal role in the lives of indigenous communities. Its diverse habitats contribute to the intricate web of life that thrives along its shores, reflecting the region's natural wonders, human ingenuity, and ecological interdependence.
The geography of the Mississippi River and its basin narrates a tale that encompasses the nation's Great Plains and Interior Lowlands, shaping the landscapes and lives of those within its influence. As an essential feature of the nation's heritage, the Mississippi River's story continues to unfold, encapsulating the essence of American geography, history, and culture.
3 HISTORY OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT FOR THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER
3.1 Snapshot
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In the early efforts from the 19th to early 20th century, the focus was on river navigation enhancements, flood control, and land reclamation. Notable projects included levee construction and the US Army Corps of Engineers (2023) role in river management.
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The period from the 1920s to the 1950s saw a national emphasis on flood control after significant flood events, such as the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, leading to the Flood Control Act of 1928 and the development of comprehensive flood control infrastructure.
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From the 1950s to the 1970s, attention shifted to improving navigation and commercial viability. This led to channelizing parts of the river and building locks, dams, dikes, and revetments.
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With growing environmental awareness between the 1970s and 1990s, efforts turned to mitigating pollution and conserving ecosystems. The Clean Water Act (CWA) and the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency were significant milestones.
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Since the 1990s, an integrated approach has been adopted, focusing on multiple objectives, such as flood control, water quality, habitat restoration, and pollution reduction. Collaborative initiatives like the Mississippi River Basin Healthy Watersheds Initiative (US Department of Agriculture, 2023) and the Gulf Hypoxia Task Force (US Environmental Protection Agency, 2023) were formed.
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In the 21st century, the impacts of climate change, such as increased flood risks and severe droughts, have led to a greater emphasis on building resilience and adaptive capacity through improved infrastructure, land-use planning, and ecosystem restoration.
These milestones and initiatives represent only a snapshot of the rich history of watershed management in the Mississippi River basin. The ongoing challenge entails balancing the diverse needs of the basin, including flood control, navigation, agriculture, water supply, and environmental protection, in a way that is sustainable and adaptive to ever-changing conditions.
3.2 Navigation system
The Mississippi River has played a crucial role in navigation and transportation in North America for thousands of years, influencing both Native American tribes and European explorers. It has significantly contributed to the economic development of the United States, with a particular emphasis on different methods to make navigation more accessible.
During the 19th century, the steamboat era revolutionized river travel, peaking between 1830 and 1870, and enhancing trade along the Mississippi (Hunter, 1994). However, the river's swift current and obstacles like sandbars and snags made navigation challenging. Efforts for improvement began in the 1820s, involving clearing snags, dredging channels, and constructing wing dams (Anfinson, 2005).
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the focus shifted to building locks and dams to control navigation (Fremling, 1989). The Upper Mississippi River 9-Foot Channel Project, authorized by Congress in 1930, was a landmark initiative, leading to the construction of 29 locks and dams that maintain a minimum 9-foot navigation channel today (Figure 1).
The Middle Mississippi River also utilized steamboats, with St. Louis becoming a bustling port. Unlike the Upper Mississippi, this segment relies on its deep channel and the water volume from the Missouri and Ohio Rivers, maintained by periodic dredging by the Army Corps of Engineers.
The Lower Mississippi River has a naturally deep channel suitable for larger vessels, and the steamboat era further increased its utility. The Mississippi River Commission (MRC) was established in 1879 to recommend policies for improving navigability (including straightening the river and clearing obstructions), and for preventing destructive floods. Even today, it remains navigable without locks or dams due to the extensive work of the Army Corps of Engineers.
The river's connection with other major waterways like the Ohio and Missouri Rivers has further enhanced its role as an extensive navigation network. The creation of the Illinois Waterway and the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal connected the Mississippi to the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi River Gulf Outlet Canal served as a shorter route to the Port of New Orleans, although it was later deauthorized due to environmental concerns.
Presently, the Mississippi River remains a vital transportation artery for goods such as grain, coal, petroleum, and chemicals. Its management poses a significant challenge, requiring a balance between commerce, flood control, water supply, and environmental protection. The river's history reflects a continuous process of adaptation and innovation, marking its importance in American commerce and development.
3.3 Flood control and management
The Mississippi River has a notable history of flooding, benefiting agriculture through fertile soil deposition but also causing destruction. Efforts to control these floods began in the 19th century with local construction of levees and floodwalls. Despite these early defenses, catastrophic floods in 1849 and 1851 led to the establishment of the MRC in 1879, initiating formal flood management.
The MRC's “Levees Only Policy” was challenged by the great flood of 1927, resulting in the Flood Control Act of 1928, granting the US Army Corps of Engineers authority to oversee flood control. The strategy expanded to include levees, reservoirs, floodways, and channelization, with the corps constructing dams and reservoirs to regulate water flow and divert excess water during floods (Figure 2).
Recent years have seen a growing awareness of the limitations and environmental impacts of structural methods (Ludy & Kondolf, 2012; Pinter et al., 2008), leading to the integration of nonstructural approaches, such as floodplain zoning and flood forecasting systems. Additionally, there's a movement towards embracing natural floodplain functions and the philosophy of “living with floods” rather than attempting complete prevention.
Today, managing the Mississippi's flooding remains a multifaceted challenge, as balancing human safety, economic interests, and environmental sustainability continues to be complex. Even with technological progress, significant floods like those in 1993 and 2011 remind us of the river's unyielding power and the continual need for adaptive management strategies.
3.4 Sediment management and erosion control
Sediment management and erosion control have played vital roles in maintaining the health and navigability of the Mississippi River and its basin, shaped by technology, environmental shifts, and an understanding of river ecology. Before the 19th century, sediment transport and erosion were natural processes, with the river reshaping floodplains and forming the delta. The arrival of European settlers and subsequent landscape modification led to changes in sedimentation and erosion dynamics, with deforestation, agriculture, and urbanization increasing soil erosion.
By the 19th century, the growing steamboat traffic on the Mississippi River made the increased sediment load an obstacle to navigation. The US Army Corps of Engineers initiated large-scale projects to maintain a navigable channel, including dredging and constructing levees. However, these actions sometimes altered the river's flow patterns and increased erosion in some areas.
The Dust Bowl era brought awareness to soil erosion, resulting in conservation programs like the Soil Conservation Service (Cook et al., 2009). In the mid-20th century, the construction of reservoirs in the Missouri River basin reduced sediment reaching the Mississippi (Williams & Wolman, 1984), causing a significant land loss in the delta (Alexander et al., 2012; Kesel, 1989).
Recently, sediment management has evolved to include more comprehensive solutions such as riparian buffer strips, reduced-till farming, and river meander restoration. Interest in sediment diversions, which allow sediment-rich water to flow into adjacent wetlands, has grown. These are included in Louisiana's Coastal Master Plan to restore coastal ecosystems (Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority of Louisiana, 2017).
Managing sediment and erosion in the Mississippi River Basin continues to be a complex challenge with ramifications for navigation, flood risk, water quality, and ecosystem health. Future strategies must balance these diverse needs, adapting to changes in land use, water management, and climate patterns.
3.5 Water supply
The Mississippi River and its basin have been central to water supply throughout history, reflecting a complex interplay of resources, technology, economics, public health, and environmental factors.
In early times, Native American communities depended on the river and its tributaries for sustenance, while European colonization and westward expansion in the 18th and 19th centuries leveraged the river for transport and industrial power. Direct water withdrawal was common, and the rise of industrial cities led to increased demand, often accompanied by contamination and diseases like cholera and typhoid.
The late 19th and early 20th centuries marked significant advances in water treatment technologies, such as slow sand filtration, rapid sand filtration, and chlorination. Centralized water treatment plants emerged, leading to a safer public water supply (Melosi, 1999). Federal involvement grew in the 20th century, with agencies like the Army Corps of Engineers and the Bureau of Reclamation developing infrastructure for navigation, flood control, water storage, and distribution.
The second half of the 20th century witnessed further advancements in treatment methods to remove chemical contaminants. The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 set national standards, ensuring better quality and reliability. Contemporary concerns focus on issues like source water protection, water conservation, and sustainable management. Challenges like nonpoint source pollution from agricultural runoff and aquifer depletion are pressing.
Climate change adds complexity to the situation, potentially altering precipitation and evaporation patterns. Adaptive strategies, including water-efficient practices, water-recycling infrastructure, and investment in advanced treatment technologies, are key to ensuring a reliable future water supply.
Overall, the history of water supply management along the Mississippi River tells a story of progression from simple reliance on available resources to grappling with industrialization's consequences, leading to a present-day emphasis on sustainable water resource management.
3.6 Pollution control and water environment restoration
The history of pollution control and water restoration in the Mississippi River basin tells a complex story of evolving awareness, marked by government interventions, industrial practices, community involvement, and scientific advancements.
In the early 20th century, the river was used for transportation and waste disposal, with industries freely discharging waste. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948 was an early response, though enforcement was weak. By the 1960s, growing environmental awareness led to stronger regulations, and the creation of the EPA in 1970 signaled a shift in national attitudes.
The CWA of 1972 played a vital role in improving water quality by requiring industries and cities to treat wastewater. However, nonpoint pollution sources, such as agricultural runoff with fertilizers and pesticides, remained a challenge. Efforts to address this included promoting best management practices among farmers, implementing the Conservation Reserve Program, and creating the Gulf Hypoxia Task Force in 1997.
Restoration efforts extended beyond pollution control to habitat restoration. The Upper Mississippi River Restoration Program, established in 1999, worked on projects like wetland restoration and island creation.
Despite significant progress, challenges persist. Climate change, evolving industrial and agricultural practices, and the large and diverse region of the Mississippi basin present continuous difficulties. The heavily engineered river also complicates attempts to restore natural processes.
In conclusion, the efforts to control pollution and restore the water environment of the Mississippi River highlight a growing recognition of the importance of clean waterways. They also underscore the need for continuous adaptation and learning to face new and existing challenges, maintaining the focus on healthy ecosystems and human well-being.
4 CURRENT CHALLENGES FOR WATERSHED MANAGEMENT OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AND ITS BASIN
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Climate change: Projected to cause more extreme weather patterns, leading to increased flooding and droughts.
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Urbanization and agriculture: These can degrade water quality, reduce habitats, and threaten biodiversity.
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Nutrient loading: Overabundance of nutrients from agricultural runoff can cause algal blooms and dead zones in the Gulf of Mexico.
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Sediment transport: Erosion from farming leads to sedimentation, impacting water quality and habitats.
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Habitat loss: Urbanization, agriculture, and development degrade and fragment habitats.
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Invasive species: Such as Asian carp, disrupt ecosystems.
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Water quality: Impaired by industrial waste, sewage, and agriculture.
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Flood management: A challenge in balancing protection and healthy floodplains.
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Overallocation of water resources: Ensuring water for all users is difficult.
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Infrastructure aging: Poses safety and health risks.
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Navigation and shipping impacts: Can affect water flow and habitats.
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Resilience and adaptation: Vital for the future of the basin.
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Environmental justice: Low-income communities are often disproportionately affected.
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Soil health: Vital for reducing erosion and improving agriculture.
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Fisheries management: Threatened by overfishing, habitat loss, and pollution.
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Historic preservation: An overlooked but essential aspect.
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Waste management: Waste, including plastics, contaminates water bodies.
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Industrial pollution: Affects water quality and health.
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Infrastructure development: Needs to be balanced with environmental impacts.
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Public engagement: Enhances stewardship and policy support.
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Collaborative governance: Necessary for a multistate watershed.
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Land use changes: These can exacerbate runoff, erosion, and habitat loss.
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Aquatic ecosystem health: Maintaining this is a constant challenge.
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Waterborne diseases: Pose risks to human health.
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Groundwater contamination: Can degrade drinking water and habitats.
The interconnection of these issues adds to the complexity of managing Mississippi's watershed. Addressing them requires a comprehensive approach that encompasses environmental, socioeconomic, and governance considerations. The need for a collaborative, informed, and adaptive strategy is clear, reflecting the importance of the river and its basin to both human communities and natural ecosystems.
5 A VISION FOR THE RESILIENT, SUSTAINABLE, AND EQUITABLE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AND ITS BASIN
The Mississippi River and its basin are at a crossroads, grappling with challenges but also presented with a unique opportunity to build a resilient, sustainable, and equitable future. A resilient Mississippi River and its basin would be able to withstand the challenges of climate change, population growth, and pollution. A sustainable Mississippi River and its basin would be able to meet the needs of the basin's people and ecosystems for generations to come. An equitable Mississippi River and its basin would ensure that all of the basin's stakeholders benefit from the river.
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Resilience to climate change: Adaptations to withstand climate extremities include redesigned agricultural practices, urban infrastructure, and the conservation of natural buffers like wetlands, floodplains, and forests.
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Sustainable resource management: Ensuring long-term well-being through best practices in agriculture, managing water, soil, and biodiversity, and respecting ecological health in navigation and fisheries.
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Ecological integrity: This includes the preservation and enhancement of biodiversity, reversing the decline of endangered species, and effective management of invasive species.
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Equitable access and environmental justice: Ensuring that all communities, irrespective of socioeconomic status, have equal rights and access to resources, recognizing the needs and rights of Indigenous communities.
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Vibrant and engaged communities: Building vibrant communities that are actively engaged in stewardship, with education fostering a sense of connection to the river.
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Sustainable infrastructure: Developing infrastructure that is sustainable, resilient, and ecologically friendly, including green stormwater management, ecologically designed river engineering, and clean energy initiatives.
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Collaborative governance: Implementing a basin-wide governance structure for effective coordination among states, federal agencies, and local communities, guided by science, traditional ecological knowledge, and public participation.
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Thriving economies: Supporting local and regional economies through sustainable agriculture, fisheries, recreation, tourism, and new opportunities in clean technologies and green industries.
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Public health and safety: Promoting high standards of health and safety through clean water and air, nutritious local food, access to outdoor spaces, and protection from environmental hazards.
This vision is not just a dream; it is a roadmap. It emphasizes ongoing learning, adaptation, and collaboration among all stakeholders, recognizing the unique attributes of the Mississippi River, from its fertile soil and wildlife to cultural diversity and economic strength. Implementing this vision would signify a transformative step toward not only a more resilient and healthy river system but also a fair and robust society. It encapsulates a future where the needs of the basin's communities are prioritized, reflecting a higher standard of well-being, environmental stewardship, and societal equity. It's a path that appreciates the complex interplay of natural and human systems, offering a holistic approach that could serve as a model for watershed management globally.
6 STRATEGIES TO ACTUALIZE THE VISION
Over time, a plethora of strategies and plans have been conceived to fulfill various managerial goals and objectives pertaining to the Mississippi River basin. These have been documented by numerous researchers and organizations such as Mitsch et al. (2001); the US Army Corps of Engineers (2008); the National Research Council (2012); Niebling et al. (2014); Xu et al. (2018); Gonzalez and Kuzma (2020); Ahlering et al. (2020), Kim and Marcouiller (2021); Reed et al. (2021); and US Environmental Protection Agency (2022).
The following strategies, built upon those earlier strategies and plans, are proposed to further progress toward realizing the vision of a resilient, sustainable, and equitable Mississippi River basin. The strategies that have been proposed are also identified and depicted in Figure 3.
6.1 Embracing Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)
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Surface water management: This involves managing the river's vast basin, and balancing needs for drinking water, agriculture, industry, and ecological health. It requires careful regulation of water withdrawals, discharges, and maintenance of flows to support aquatic life.
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Groundwater management: The basin hosts significant aquifers, including the Ogallala Aquifer (Brauer et al., 2017). An integrated approach would regulate withdrawals, promote efficiency, and support recharge to avoid declining water tables and other issues.
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Water quality management: The basin faces risks from pollutants such as agricultural runoff and industrial discharges. Addressing this involves regulatory measures, best practices in agriculture, effective wastewater treatment, and urban stormwater management.
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Flood management: The history of catastrophic floods in the Mississippi River necessitates an approach that combines structural and nonstructural measures to reduce flood risks, and also emphasizes the restoration and maintenance of natural floodplains.
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Social, economic, and environmental considerations: A successful One Water approach must include equitable access to clean water, support water-dependent economic activities, and protect and restore the diverse ecosystems within the basin.
This integrated approach requires collaboration among numerous stakeholders, such as federal, state, and local agencies, tribal governments, water utilities, agricultural users, environmental groups, and the public (Moore, 2021). Through cooperative efforts, the One Water philosophy would allow the management of this crucial water resource in a manner that caters to both human needs and environmental health. By embracing a holistic view of water management, the One Water concept can provide a pathway to the sustainable future of one of the world's most significant river systems.
6.2 Leveraging information technologies (ITs)
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Remote sensing: With equipment like satellites, drones, LIDAR, RADAR, and multispectral sensors, timely data on water quality, land use, and soil erosion can be gathered and analyzed, guiding risk assessment and interventions (e.g., Wang et al., 2023).
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Geographic information system (GIS): GIS can combine remote sensing data with geospatial information to form intricate maps and models, aiding in the assessment of impacts and planning of mitigation strategies.
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Field monitoring sensors: The installation of sensors to monitor water levels, quality, rainfall, and temperature enables real-time data collection, feeding early warning systems for environmental threats.
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Digital watersheds and digital twins: These virtual representations allow for simulations and predictions of different scenarios, utilizing a blend of remote sensing, GIS, and sensor data.
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Internet of things: The connection of physical devices to the internet enables real-time basin monitoring and supports adaptive management approaches.
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Machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI): AI techniques, including machine learning, can handle vast data amounts, detect patterns, predict future conditions, and aid in decision-making (Krishnan et al., 2022).
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AI-powered language models: Tools like ChatGPT can analyze textual data to gauge public sentiment and automate tasks such as report generation, improving operational efficiency.
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Other tools and technologies: Emerging technologies, including blockchain, augmented reality, virtual reality, big data analytics, nanotechnology, 5G technology, cloud computing, edge computing, and quantum computing, could further revolutionize watershed management by addressing complex challenges.
However, the successful implementation of these technologies necessitates overcoming obstacles such as integration, data security, user training, and equity in technology access. An interdisciplinary collaboration involving technologists, environmental scientists, and watershed managers is imperative to fully leverage the potential of these technologies. Together, they offer an extensive toolkit to augment the watershed management of the Mississippi River and its basin, moving towards a more resilient and sustainable future.
6.3 Synergizing green, grey, and blue infrastructure measures
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Green infrastructure encapsulates a strategy that merges nature and nature-based solutions into built environments. It employs measures like rain gardens (e.g., Zhou & Guo, 2022), permeable pavements, green roofs, and rainwater harvesting systems to manage stormwater, diminish flooding, filter pollutants, and enhance the quality of life. For the Mississippi River, this approach supports the control of stormwater runoff and improves overall environmental quality.
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Grey infrastructure refers to traditional, engineered structures used in water management, such as pipes, dams, and treatment systems. Unlike green infrastructure, grey infrastructure often provides limited social and ecological services. Within the Mississippi River region, critical components like levees and dams are integral to flood control and navigation.
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Blue infrastructure emphasizes the conservation and restoration of water resources and their ecosystems, including rivers, wetlands, and floodplains. In the context of the Mississippi watershed, blue infrastructure contributes to flood reduction, water quality improvement, and valuable wildlife habitats.
The integration of these three infrastructure types can lead to a more holistic, sustainable, and resilient water management system for the Mississippi River and its watershed. For instance: Green Infrastructure can lessen stormwater runoff, alleviating stress on traditional grey systems. Grey Infrastructure like dams continues to be vital in flood management. Blue Infrastructure aids in handling storms that exceed the capacity of green and grey infrastructure to manage feasibly, and it contributes to the provision of essential ecosystem services by enhancing and safeguarding natural water bodies.
An integrated approach to these infrastructures offers multifaceted benefits, such as reduced pressure on conventional water systems, enriched biodiversity, improved air and water quality, and augmented resilience to climate change. Considering the complexity and diversity of the Mississippi River and its watershed, the synergy of green, grey, and blue infrastructure represents an efficacious strategy to tackle the array of water-related challenges in the region.
6.4 Preparing for extreme weather events
The Mississippi River basin has historically been vulnerable to extreme weather events, including flash floods, droughts, and extreme heat, each posing significant challenges that require a comprehensive approach to preparation and mitigation strategies.
Flash floods are characterized by rapid flooding of low-lying areas caused by intense rainfall over short periods. In the Mississippi River basin, flash floods can be triggered by severe thunderstorms, hurricanes, or rapid snowmelt. Urban zones with poor drainage systems and certain geographical features, like mountainous regions, are particularly susceptible. These floods can be catastrophic, as they develop within minutes to a few hours, leaving minimal time for preventive measures. Early warning systems, urban planning, and public education are vital for mitigating risks associated with flash floods in this region.
The Mississippi River basin has witnessed several distinct periods of severe droughts, each having unique impacts. The 1930s Dust Bowl devastated agriculture in the Great Plains (Worster, 1979), causing soil erosion, crop failures, and economic and social disruption. The drought in the mid-1950s caused significant impacts on agriculture and water supplies, resulting in community water shortages. The drought in 1988–1989 led to substantial agricultural losses and severely impacted river navigation. Marking the most severe drought in 25 years, the 2012 drought caused significant agricultural losses, and low water levels threatened navigation. These droughts have had profound effects on agriculture, navigation, water supply, and ecosystems. Efforts to manage these impacts include improving irrigation, altering crop strategies, water conservation, and infrastructure investments (Handmer & Dovers, 2007). With climate change (IPCC, 2014), ongoing efforts are essential to cope with the potential increased frequency and severity of droughts.
Extreme heat events have also had considerable impacts in the region. The extreme heat of the 1930s exacerbated the Dust Bowl's drought conditions, leading to crop failures and health impacts (Worster, 1979). The 1980 heatwave resulted in significant crop losses and over 1700 deaths. The 1995 heatwave caused over 700 heat-related deaths in Chicago. The 2012 heatwave worsened the drought conditions, causing widespread crop losses and heat-related deaths. Extreme heat can severely affect agriculture, human health, and ecosystems, including increased evaporation rates that reduce water availability. Efforts to mitigate these impacts include improved forecasting, public health measures, water conservation, and the development of heat-tolerant crops.
Effective preparation for extreme weather events necessitates a multipronged approach. Accurate weather forecasts are vital for early warnings, allowing time for preparation and response (Handmer & Dovers, 2007). Resilient infrastructure, such as levees, floodwalls, drainage systems, reservoirs, and treatment facilities, can mitigate damage from floods and maintain water supply during droughts. Sustainable use of resources and resilience can be ensured through adaptive water and land management strategies. Educating the public about risks and maintaining clear communication during events ensures awareness and appropriate action.
6.5 Addressing equity issues
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Environmental justice and pollution burdens have become prominent issues. Industrial, agricultural, and urban activities have led to environmental degradation, primarily affecting communities near these pollution sources. These communities, often comprising marginalized groups, face health challenges and have limited influence over policies.
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The issue of access to clean water and sanitation is equally critical. Despite abundant water in the Mississippi River basin, certain communities face water quality issues due to contamination from various sources. Equitable access to clean water is vital for health, equity, and social justice.
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Land use and land rights have historical roots, influencing natural resources and economic opportunities. Indigenous and marginalized groups have faced challenges concerning land rights, with modern decisions about land use further complicating these matters. These actions may impact cultural heritage and traditional practices.
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Flooding and climate resilience are particularly relevant to communities in flood-prone areas along the river (Cutter & Emrich, 2006). Disproportionately affected by extreme weather events, these marginalized communities often lack resources for disaster preparedness and recovery (Gallopín, 2006), making the need for equitable strategies paramount for their safety and well-being.
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Economic disparities and employment opportunities are tied to the river's economic significance. While it provides opportunities in some areas, others may experience limited prospects, perpetuating poverty and inequality. Inclusive economic policies and investment in workforce development can promote shared growth.
Addressing these equity issues necessitates a collaborative and multifaceted approach. Acknowledgment of historical injustices and systemic inequalities is fundamental in crafting policies promoting environmental justice, social equity, and sustainable development. Engaging communities in decision-making processes and targeted investments can empower those affected, enhance resilience, and ensure equitable sharing of the Mississippi River's benefits. Ensuring fairness along the Mississippi River will contribute to the sustainability and resilience of the river system and those dependent on it.
6.6 Recognizing water–energy–food nexus
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Water: The Mississippi River provides fresh water for millions, serving various purposes including public supply, irrigation, industrial usage, and thermoelectric power generation. However, the basin's water quality and availability face threats from pollution, overuse, and climate-induced extremes such as droughts and floods. Managing these resources requires consideration of these competing demands and environmental impacts.
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Energy: Essential to the US energy landscape, the Mississippi supports renewable energy production through hydropower and facilitates the transportation of fossil fuels. The river also plays a role in cooling thermoelectric power plants. These activities may adversely affect the river environment through pollution, habitat disruption, and substantial water usage, although most cooling water is returned to the river.
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Food: As a global agricultural powerhouse, the Mississippi basin supports large portions of US crops and livestock. The river offers water for irrigation and transportation of agricultural products. Nonetheless, farming can negatively affect water resources via nutrient runoff, leading to pollution and Gulf hypoxia (David et al., 2010; Scavia et al., 2003), while water availability and quality may influence agricultural yields.
Effective management of this water–energy–food nexus demands an intricate understanding of these interconnections and trade-offs. Strategies might include increasing renewable energy, promoting efficient farming practices, improving water treatment and reuse, and crafting policies that acknowledge the intricate relationship between water, energy, and food systems. Such integrated resource management approaches can aid in harmonizing the competing demands of these essential sectors.
6.7 Exploring the Mississippi River and its basin as a carbon capture reservoir
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Forests: The basin's forests rank among the world's most efficient natural carbon sinks (Pan et al., 2011). Through photosynthesis, trees consume carbon dioxide, retaining the carbon within their biomass and liberating oxygen back into the atmosphere.
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Wetlands: Particularly in the Mississippi River delta, the basin's expansive wetlands excel in storing carbon (Macreadie et al., 2017; Mitsch et al., 2013). Unlike forests, where carbon is re-emitted when trees decay, wetlands can trap carbon in oxygen-poor mud for millennia, blocking its full decomposition and release.
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Agriculture: With proper management, agricultural lands can also sequester considerable carbon amounts (Paustian et al., 2016). Techniques like cover cropping, reduced tillage, and crop rotation can augment soil carbon storage.
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Sediment transport: The Mississippi River conveys massive sediment quantities to the Gulf of Mexico, some of which is organic carbon eroded from the basin's soils. This sediment-carbon may be entombed in the delta, effectively sequestering it from the atmosphere.
However, human activities, including deforestation, wetland drainage, and land-use changes, pose threats to these carbon sequestration abilities.
The urgency to acknowledge the Mississippi River's critical role as a carbon capture reservoir has prompted conservation and restoration initiatives. Protecting wetlands, endorsing sustainable land practices, and preserving forests can bolster the basin's capacity to sequester carbon efficiently (Griscom et al., 2017). Additionally, conscientious river and watershed management can mitigate nutrient runoff, thus decreasing harmful algal blooms and Gulf hypoxia, which may interrupt carbon sequestration and augment greenhouse gas emissions.
In conclusion, the Mississippi River and its basin stand as underestimated champions in combating climate change. Their contribution as a carbon capture reservoir underscores the necessity to conserve and rejuvenate natural ecosystems, especially wetlands and forests. Recognizing and leveraging this vast river system's carbon sink capabilities presents an opportunity for proactive climate change mitigation, laying the groundwork for a sustainable future for ensuing generations.
6.8 Understanding atmospheric phenomena and investigating geoengineering concepts
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Jet streams: Jet streams are rapid, narrow currents of air in the atmosphere, typically at the tropopause (Woollings et al., 2010). In the United States, the Polar jet stream significantly influences weather, especially in the Mississippi River basin. It steers weather systems, bringing cold or warm air, and affecting temperature and precipitation patterns (Francis & Vavrus, 2012). In winter, a strong Polar jet stream can cause heavy snowfall in the basin. In summer, it affects severe weather formation, including thunderstorms and tornadoes.
- 2.
Atmospheric rivers: Atmospheric rivers are long, slender regions transporting water vapor outside the tropics, equivalent to the flow of the Mississippi River's mouth. They are vital in the global water cycle and influence water supply and flood risks. In the Mississippi River basin, they can contribute to significant rainfall, especially when interacting with frontal systems, leading to potential flooding (Lavers & Villarini, 2015).
- 3.
Interactions between jet streams and atmospheric rivers: Their interaction significantly affects weather patterns in the basin. Jet streams can steer atmospheric rivers, affecting where they land (Francis & Vavrus, 2012). When directed towards the basin, they may cause substantial rainfall, replenishing supplies, or contributing to flooding. The temperature contrast can further develop severe weather, including tornadoes.
- 4.
Geoengineering: This term refers to deliberate interventions in the Earth's climate system to mitigate climate change impacts or alter weather (Keith, 2000). No geoengineering measures have been executed to target jet streams and atmospheric rivers. However, among the various proposed geoengineering concepts, the following two are most pertinent:
- a.
Solar radiation management: This method involves reflecting sun radiation to cool Earth. Reflective aerosols could be injected into the stratosphere, aiming to influence atmospheric circulation patterns, including the jet stream (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2021; National Research Council, 2015).
- b.
Cloud seeding: Introducing substances into clouds to encourage precipitation, this technique could potentially influence atmospheric rivers.
- a.
Geoengineering is a complex and debated topic with ethical, environmental, and social considerations. Potential consequences of large-scale interventions include unintended environmental impacts, unpredictable weather changes, and geopolitical challenges. Continuous scientific research and global discourse are essential, and substantial implementation requires careful evaluation of ethical, legal, and environmental aspects.
In conclusion, the phenomena of jet streams and atmospheric rivers, and their interaction, have profound impacts on weather and climate in the Mississippi River basin. Understanding these features is vital for prediction and preparation. Meanwhile, geoengineering remains a contentious and complex field. Prioritizing strategies that minimize greenhouse gas emissions, protect ecosystems, and build resilient communities is often considered a more sustainable approach to addressing extreme weather and climate change impacts.
7 RESEARCH NEEDS
- 1.
Climate change impact assessment: A profound understanding of climate change impacts, including temperature shifts, precipitation patterns, and indirect influences like land use changes, is vital. Research in this area focuses on crafting predictive tools and models.
- 2.
Water quality and improvement: The basin's water quality is threatened by pollutants from agriculture, urban areas, and industry. Research should aim at monitoring and formulating strategies to mitigate these contaminants.
- 3.
Ecosystem health: Understanding and protecting the diverse and often endangered species within the basin is essential. Strategies must be developed for their conservation and restoration.
- 4.
Flood prediction and control: With a history of devastating floods, the river needs advanced prediction models and efficient management methods to safeguard both human settlements and natural ecosystems.
- 5.
Sediment management: Research into the sources, movement, and management of sediment is required to resolve issues related to navigation, flood control, and ecological well-being.
- 6.
Invasive species control: Understanding and developing control measures for invasive species like Asian carp is crucial for preserving the basin's integrity.
- 7.
Socioeconomic and policy impact: Studies into the economic and societal effects of the river are necessary to guide policy decisions.
- 8.
Land use impact: Investigating the consequences of diverse land use, including farming and industrial activities, on the watershed is essential for creating sustainable strategies.
- 9.
Integrated water resources management: Comprehensive management approaches must be formulated, considering the interests of various stakeholders, such as farmers, businesses, and environmental groups.
- 10.
Hydrologic and hydrodynamic modeling: Enhanced models are needed to analyze the basin's water balance and flow dynamics, and to evaluate their susceptibility to modifications due to climate change.
- 11.
Ecosystem restoration: Strategies must be developed to rejuvenate ecosystems degraded by human activities.
- 12.
Public engagement: Research into effective public participation methods is paramount for sustainable river management.
- 13.
Economic valuation: Assessing the river's economic value helps in crafting incentives for sustainable practices.
- 14.
Innovative approaches: Evaluating innovative strategies like geoengineering or integrated green–grey–blue infrastructure can reveal novel solutions.
- 15.
Watershed management measures: Understanding the efficacy of various strategies ensures more informed solutions to the basin's challenges.
In summary, the pressing research needs for the Mississippi River basin cover a broad spectrum of interconnected challenges. The collective pursuit of these areas is instrumental in ensuring the river's health and sustainability amid continual environmental changes.
8 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The Mississippi River basin's management is a complex task, requiring an integrated and forward-looking approach. Addressing challenges like extreme weather, sedimentation, and pollution, the basin offers opportunities for enhanced sustainability. Recommendations for a resilient Mississippi River include: adopting an approach to water resource management that balances all needs; utilizing ITs such as digital watersheds for data handling and decision-making; blending green, grey, and blue infrastructures for adaptive management; preparing for weather extremes through warnings, infrastructure, and education; ensuring equity in water access and protection from environmental hazards; recognizing the water-energy-food nexus to foster sustainability; exploring the river's potential as a carbon capture reservoir; investigating geoengineering's role, weighing its benefits and risks; and prioritizing research to fill knowledge gaps. These measures aim to foster a sustainable, equitable, and resilient management of the river and its basin.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The photographs in Figures 1 and 2 were taken during the technical tours at the American Society of Civil Engineers' World Environmental and Water Resources Congress in 2018 and the American Geophysical Union's Fall Meeting in 2021, respectively. The arrangements made by the conference organizers are valued.
ETHICS STATEMENT
None declared.
Open Research
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
This study neither gathered nor generated any data, instead utilizing information readily accessible in the public domain.
