Morphogenesis of high mountains entirely covered by granitoid boulders and blocks in the northeastern part of Australia
Corresponding Author
Masahiro Chigira
Fuchida Geological Institute, Tokyo, Japan
Correspondence
Masahiro Chigira, Fukada Geological Institute, 2-13-1 Honkomagome, Bunkyo Ward, Tokyo 113-0021, Japan.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Masahiro Chigira
Fuchida Geological Institute, Tokyo, Japan
Correspondence
Masahiro Chigira, Fukada Geological Institute, 2-13-1 Honkomagome, Bunkyo Ward, Tokyo 113-0021, Japan.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
Boulder fields are a typical feature of granitoid landscapes. Previously reported boulder fields are commonly an accumulation of boulders on gently undulating surfaces; however, sometimes boulders form high mountains. The Black and Melville Mountains, northeast Australia, have relative heights of 300 to 500 m and are entirely covered by granitoid boulders and blocks. They are underlain by Permian granitoid rocks intruded into the Silurian–Devonian strata. We performed field surveys, UAV observations and satellite image analysis of these mountains using Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) obtained from satellite data. Melville Mountain has low-relief top surfaces surrounded by steep slopes covered by boulders with (sub)angular blocks. The low-relief surfaces are assumed to be an exhumed Jurassic unconformity, below which the granitoid rocks became corestones (boulders) by subsurface spheroidal weathering. The limited exposure of the bedrock suggests that the granitoids were columnar jointed, which facilitated the spheroidal weathering. The steep slopes are covered by boulders originating from the low-relief top surfaces and rock blocks from the rock columns below the zone of spheroidal weathering. Black Mountain lacks low-relief top surfaces and comprises steep slopes covered with rock blocks. Boulders on Black Mountain exist at the feet of steep slopes and are mixed with rock blocks. The boulders are probably from previous low-relief top surfaces that are now lost. Columnar joints, subsurface spheroidal weathering, uplift and erosion are essential for the formation of the high mountains covered by boulders and blocks of granitoid.
Open Research
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
Data are available on request to the corresponding author.
REFERENCES
- Bemis, S.P., Micklethwaite, S., Turner, D., James, M.R., Akciz, S., Thiele, S., et al. (2014) Ground-based and UAV-based photogrammetry: A multi-scale, high-resolution mapping tool for structural geology and paleoseismology. Journal of Structural Geology, 69, 163–178. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2014.10.007
- Buddington, A.F. (1959) Granite emplacement with special reference to North-America. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 70, 671–747. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1959)70[671:Gewsrt]2.0.Co;2
- Bureau of Meteorology, Australian Government. (n.d.) Climate statistics for australian locations. Retrieved January 8, 2025 from: http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_031016.shtml
- Champion, D.C. & Bultitude, R.J. (2013) The geochemical and Sr-Nd isotopic characteristics of Paleozoic fractionated S-types granites of North Queensland: Implications for S-type granite petrogenesis. Lithos, 162, 37–56. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2012.11.022
- Chapman, D.C. & Bultitude, R.J. (2013) The geochemical and Sr-Nd isotopic characteristics of Paleozoic fractionated S-types granites of North Queensland: Implications for S-type granite petrogenesis. Lithos, 162, 37–56.
- Chapman, R.W. & Greenfield, M.A. (1949) Spheroidal weathering of igneous rocks. American Journal of Science, 247(6), 407–429. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.247.6.407
- Cheng, Y., Todd, C.N., Henderson, R.A., Danisík, M., Sahlström, F., Chang, Z., et al. (2020) Jurassic uplift and erosion of the Northeast Queensland continental margin: evidence from (U-Th)/He thermochronology combined with U-Pb detrital zircon age spectra. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 67(4), 591–604. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/08120099.2020.1714730
- Chigira, M. (2021) Rock pillars shaped by columnar joints in granite at Mt. Mizugaki, Central Japan. Island Arc, 30, e12424. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/iar.12424
- Chigira, M. (2022) An obelisk-shaped granitoid tower at Mt. Jizogadake in the southern Alps of Japan: A 3-d morphological study. Island Arc, 31(1), e12449. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/iar.12449
- Chigira, M. & Hirata, Y. (2021) The Kui boulder fields: Formation processes controlled by columnar joints of granodiorite. Catena, 207, 105683. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2021.105683
- Chigira, M. & Kato, H. (2023) Granite rock towers shaped by mesh-like joint sets, which formed in the shallower portion of a granite body during cooling at depth. Island Arc, 32(1), e12484. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/iar.12484
- Chigira, M. & Kato, H. (2024) A zone of columnar joints beneath the roof of a granitic pluton: The Okueyama granite, southwestern Japan. Island Arc, 33, 1–13. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/iar.12524
- Cloos, H. (1921) Der Mechanismus tiefvulkanischer Vorgänge. Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg.
- Department of Mines and Energy Q. (1997a) Austraila 1:250 000 geological series cape melville.
- Department of Mines and Energy Q. (1997b) Austraila 1:250 000 Geological Series Cooktown.
- Fletcher, R.C. & Brantley, S.L. (2010) Reduction of bedrock blocks as corestones in the weathering profile: Observations and model. American Journal of Science, 310(3), 131–164. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2475/03.2010.01
- Fletcher, R.C., Buss, H.L. & Brantley, S.L. (2006) A spheroidal weathering model coupling porewater chemistry to soil thicknesses during steady-state denudation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 244, 444–457.
- Godard, A. (1977) Pays et paysages du granite. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
- Goehring, L. & Morris, S.W. (2008) Scaling of columnar joints in basalt. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 113(B10), B10203. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1029/2007jb005018
- Granger, D.E., Riebe, C.S., Kirchner, J.W. & Finkel, R.C. (2001) Modulation of erosion on steep granitic slopes by boulder armoring, as revealed by cosmogenic 26Al and 10Be. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 186(2), 269–281. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0012-821x(01)00236-9
- Grims, K.G. (1979) The stratigrahic sequence of old land surfaces in northern Queensland. BMR Journal of Australian Geology and Geophysics, 4, 33–46.
- Hirata, Y., Chigira, M. & Chen, Y.Q. (2016) Spheroidal weathering of granite porphyry with well-developed columnar joints by oxidation, iron precipitation, and rindlet exfoliation. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 42, 657–669. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4008
- Hoskin, C.J., Hines, H.B., Webb, R.J., Skerratt, L.F. & Berger, L. (2018) Naïve rainforest frogs on Cape York, Australia, are at risk of the introduction of amphibian chytridiomycosis disease. Australian Journal of Zoology, 66(3), 174. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1071/zo18041
- Jaboyedoff, M., Metzger, R., Oppikofer, T., Couture, R., Derron, M.H., Locat, J., et al. (2007) New insight techniques to analyze rock-slope relief using DEM and 3D-imaging cloud points: COLTOP-3D software. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 1st Canada-US rock 343 mechanics Symposium, Vancouver.
- James, M.R. & Robson, S. (2012) Straightforward reconstruction of 3D surfaces and topography with a camera: Accuracy and geoscience application. Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface, 117(F3), F03017. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1029/2011jf002289
- Kasprzak, M., Jancewicz, K. & Michniewicz, A. (2018) UAV and SfM in detailed geomorphological mapping of granite tors: An example of Starościńskie Skały (Sudetes, SW Poland). Pure and Applied Geophysics, 175(9), 3193–3207. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-017-1730-8
- King, L.C. (1949) The cyclic land-surfaces of Australia. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria. 79-95.
- Linton, D.L. (1955) The problems of tors. The Geographical Journal, 121, 470–486.
10.2307/1791756 Google Scholar
- Marshallsea, S.J., Green, P.F. & Webb, J. (2000) Thermal history of the Hodgkinson Province and Laura Basin, Queensland: multiple cooling episodes identified from apatite fission track analysis and vitrinite reflectance data. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 47(4), 779–797. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-0952.2000.00809.x
- Michniewicz, A., Jancewicz, K. & Migoń, P. (2020) Large-scale geomorphological mapping of tors – proposal of a key and landform interpretation. Geomorphology, 357, 107106. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2020.107106
- Migoń, P. (2004) Structural control in the evolution of granite landscape. Acta Universitatis Carolinae, Geographica, 39, 19–32.
- Migoń, P. (2006a) Granite landscapes of the world. New York: Oxford university press.
10.1093/oso/9780199273683.001.0001 Google Scholar
- Migoń, P. (2006b) Grus weathering mantles as indicators of long-term geomorphic instability. Quaestiones Geographicae. 49-55.
- Migoń, P. (2021) Granite landscapes, geodiversity and geoheritage—Global context. Heritage, 4(1), 198–219. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4010012
- Migoń, P., Woo, K.-S. & Kasprzak, M. (2018) Landform recognition in granite mountains in East Asia (Seoraksan, Republic of Korea, and Huangshan and Sanqingshan, China)—A contribution of geomorphology to the Unesco world heritage. Questiones Geographicae, 37, 103–114. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2478/quageo-2018-0008
10.2478/quageo-2018-0008 Google Scholar
- Oberlander, T.M. (1972) Morphogenesis of granitic boulder slopes in Mojave Desert, California. Journal of Geology, 80, 1–20.
- Oberlander, T.M. (1974) Landscape inheritance and the pediment problem in the Mojave Desert of southern California. American Journal of Science, 274(8), 849–875. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.274.8.849
- Ollier, C. (1967) Spheroidal weathering, exfoliation and constant volume alteration. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, 11, 103–108.
- Ollier, C.D. (1971) Causes of spheroidal weathering. Earth Science Reviews, 7(3), 127–141. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-8252(71)90005-5
- Oswald-Jacobs, I. & Hoatson, D. (2017) Cape York Peninsula: An aerial journey of tropical North Queensland.
- Park, K. (2003) Blockfields of seoraksan national park: Age and origin. Journal of the Korean Geographical Society, 38, 922–934.
- Phillips, J.C., Humphreys, M.C.S., Daniels, K.A., Brown, R.J. & Witham, F. (2013) The formation of columnar joints produced by cooling in basalt at Staffa, Scotland. Bulletin of Volcanology, 75, 715. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-013-0715-4
- Polgari, M., Berczi, S., Horiuchi, K., Matsuzaki, H., Kovacs, T., Jozsa, S., et al. (2017) Characterization and Be-10 content of iron carbonate concretions for genetic aspects—Weathering, desert varnish or burning: Rim effects in iron carbonate concretions. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 173, 58–69. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2016.11.005
- Ran, C., Zhou, Z., Lu, X., Gong, B., Jiang, Y. & Wu, Z. (2024) Slope stability analysis of rockfill embankments considering stress-dependent spatial variability in friction angle of granular materials. Applied Sciences, 14(14), 6354. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/app14146354
- Rea, B., Whalley, W., Rainey, M. & Gordon, P. (1996) Blockfields, old or new? Evidence and implications from some plateaus in northern Norway. Geomorphology, 15, 109–121.
- Ruxton, B.P. & Berry, L. (1957) Weathering of granite and associated erosional features in Hong Kong. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, 68(10), 1263–1292. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1957)68%5B1263:WOGAAE%5D2.0.CO;2
- Saito, S. & Tani, K. (2017) Transformation of juvenile Izu–Bonin–Mariana oceanic arc into mature continental crust: An example from the Neogene Izu collision zone granitoid plutons, Central Japan. Lithos, 277, 228–240. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2016.07.035
- Shimizu, C. & Suzuki, Y. (1994) Forest limit and its relation with periglacial block slope around Mt. Kinpu-san in the Chichibu Mountains, Central Japan. Journal of Geography, 103(3), 286–294. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5026/jgeography.103.286
10.5026/jgeography.103.286 Google Scholar
- Slee, A., Barrows, T.T., Shulmeister, J., Gontz, A., Kiernan, K., Haworth, R., et al. (2022) The age and paleoclimate implications of relict periglacial block deposits on the New England Tablelands, Australia. Quaternary Research, 111, 121–137. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1017/qua.2022.32
- Souza, A.S.V., Maia, R.P., Bezerra, F.H., Migoń, P. & Siame, L.L. (2023) Granitic inselberg erosion controlled by dike swarm array in semiarid Brazil. Geomorphology, 440, 108865. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2023.108865
- Spry, A. (1962) The origin of columnar jointing, particularly in basalt flows. Journal of the Geological Society of Australia, 8(2), 191–216. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/14400956208527873
10.1080/14400956208527873 Google Scholar
- Takahashi, M. (1986). Anatomy of a middle Miocene Valles-type caldera cluster: Geology of the Okueyama volcano-plutonic complex, southwest Japan. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 29(1–4), 33–70. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-0273(86)90039-9
- Thomas, M.F. (1964) Some aspects of the geomorphology of domes and tors in Nigeria. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie N.F, 9, 63–81.
- Toramaru, A. & Matsumoto, T. (2004). Columnar joint morphology and cooling rate: A starch-water mixture experiment. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 109(B2), B02205. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1029/2003jb002686
- Twidale, C.R. (1956) Chronology of denudation in Northwest Queensland. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 67(7), 867–882. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1956)67[867:CODINQ]2.0.CO;2
- Twidale, C.R. (1966) Geomorphology of the Leichhardt-Gilbert area, northwest Queensland. Land Research Series. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation.
- Twidale, C.R. (1981) Granitic inselbergs—Domed, block-strewn and castellated. Geographical Journal, 147(1), 54-+. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2307/633409
10.2307/633409 Google Scholar
- Twidale, C.R. (1982) Granite landforms. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
- Twidale, C.R. & Campbell, E.M. (2006) Geomorphological development of the eastern margin of the Australian Craton. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 17(4), 419–431. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290170411
- Twidale, C.R. & Vidal Romani, J.R. (2005) Landforms and geology of granite terrains. Leiden: A. A. Balkema Publisher.
10.1201/9781439833704 Google Scholar
- Watanabe, S., Saito, S. & Tani, K. (2020) Estimation of emplacement depth for the Miocene Kaikomagatake granitoid pluton: constraints on crustal denudation history of the Izu collision zone. Journal of Mineralogical and Petrological Sciences, 115(3), 276–285. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2465/jmps.191031
- Young, A. (1972) Slopes. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.