A Comprehensive Review of the Health Benefits, Nutritional Composition, and Agricultural Aspects of Sesame Seeds
Abstract
Sesame seeds (Sesamum indicum) are considered valuable for their nutritional qualities and wide range of uses in several sectors of the global economy. Bioactive substances such as lignans, phytosterols, γ-tocopherol, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and tryptophan which have strong anti-inflammatory, lipid-lowering, and antioxidant properties are present in them. In addition, sesame seeds contribute to human health by offering vital elements like protein, unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals. The bioavailability of these nutrients has been enhanced by recent developments in processing technologies and agricultural methods. Apart from the food industry, sesame seeds are also being used extensively in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and industrial sectors, such as in the manufacturing of biodiesel and animal feed. This review highlights the potential contribution of sesame seeds to sustainable food systems by compiling the most recent research on their nutritional makeup, health advantages, and variety of uses.
Summary
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Sesame seeds are versatile, offering applications in food, health, and industry.
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Their rich nutrients and bioactive compounds make them ideal for functional foods and therapeutic uses, including cardiovascular and anti-inflammatory benefits.
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Sesame cultivation supports sustainability with drought-resistant traits, while industrial uses include cosmetics, biodiesel, and animal feed.
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Incorporating sesame seeds in daily meals promotes overall health of individuals.
1. Introduction
Sesame, commonly known as gingelly or benne, is a plant belonging to the genus Sesamum. It grows in pods and is widely naturalized in tropical locations worldwide like Sudan, Myanmar, and India. Greek sēsamon and Latin sesamum are the sources of the term “sesame.” Words with the general meaning “oil, liquid fat” were derived from these roots [1]. It is thought that the one of the earliest oilseed crops ever domesticated by humans is sesame seed [2]. The majority of sesame’s wild species are indigenous to sub-Saharan Africa [3].
Sesame seeds are a vital dietary source of oil, protein, vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber. Sesame oil is rich in amino acids, fat-soluble vitamins, and unsaturated fatty acids. Sesame seeds contain γ-tocopherol, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, folic acid, ascorbic acid, and tocotrienol [4]. Sesame seeds are a good source of K, P, Mg, Na, Fe, Zn, and Mn and other minerals. Numerous significant nutraceuticals and phytochemicals like sesamin, sesamolin, sesamol, sesaminol, triterpenoids, anthraquinones, naphthoquinones, polyphenols, phytosterols, and flavonoids enhance the nutritional value of sesame seeds [5, 6].
In 2020, global sesame seed output reached 7 million metric tons, with Tanzania, Sudan, and Myanmar leading the way. According to updated estimates, the global market for sesame seeds, which was valued at USD 10980 million in 2023, will rise at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 3.9% to reach USD 13820 million by 2031 [7]. Sudan produced the most sesame seeds in 2022 (1,231,701 tons), followed by India and Myanmar in a comparison of 69 countries. Panama with 9.86 tons, Jordan with 11.3 tons, and Japan with 13.9 tons were at the other extreme of the spectrum. The FAO reports that global sesame seed production reached 6,741,479 tons in 2022. This represents a 1.1% increase from the previous year and a 17.6% increase from ten years ago [8].
The sesame industry produces significant byproducts, which pose economic and environmental challenges. However, sesame seeds are processed to produce various products, including sesame oil, roasted seeds, sesame paste (tahini), and tahini halva. Sesame seeds are primarily used for oil extraction. Paints, laxatives, soaps, cosmetics, biodiesel, perfumes, bactericides, and insecticides are among the industrial products that use sesame [9]. Sesame seeds are also added to a variety of cereal-based treats all around the world. A study found that millet flour can be substituted for defatted sesame powder in biscuits, improving flavor, crispness, and protein levels. Sesame seeds are a popular ingredient in various cuisines, including bread, bagels, hamburger bun tops, crackers, cakes, fast-food buns, and savory and sweet cookies like benne wafers. Sesame oil contains antioxidant sesamol, and dishes fried in sesame oil have a longer shelf life. For animals and poultry, sesame meal is a great high-quality feed that contains 40% protein [10].
Bioactive ingredients like phytosterols and lignans in sesame seeds are beneficial for antioxidants, blood pressure reduction, cholesterol prevention, and immunity boosters [11]. Sesamin can be used to prevent cancer since it reduced the growth and progression of tumors [12]. Sesamin’s antiproliferative, proapoptotic, antimetastatic, and prophagocytic properties have all been linked to its anticancer effects [13]. Sesamin increases atheroprotective HDL levels while decreasing atherogenesis-triggering LDL, VLDL, and TG levels [14]. In addition to its antihypertensive qualities, sesame seeds also demonstrate lipolytic, antiatherogenic, antithrombotic, and antiobesity effects [15–17]. Another well-known feature of sesame seeds is its capacity to scavenge radicals, which results in endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation [18]. Sesame’s phytochemicals also have lipid-lowering properties and prevent postprandial hyperglycemia [19, 20]. Sesame seeds are also a great source of fiber, which helps maintain glucose levels and regulate blood sugar levels [21].
The bioavailability and bioactivity of bioactive compounds of sesame seeds may be influenced by interactions between phenolic compounds and proteins [22]. Sesame seeds have a high concentration of lipid and protein components. Based on practical considerations, specific techniques have been developed to increase the bioavailability of sesamin [23–25]. These techniques include manufacturing sesamol solid lipid nanoparticles by adding lipid matrices, surfactants, and other excipients; altering the solubility of phytosterols by crystallization retardation; and applying colloidal systems, such as colloidal phytosterol synthesis [26].
2. Agricultural Significance
Sesame, an herbaceous annual plant in the Pedaliaceae family, is known for its edible seed, oil, and flavor. Also known as gingerly, til, and benne seed, it is dubbed the “Queen of Oilseeds” due to its resistance to oxidation and rancidity [3]. The plant, also known as ajonjoli in Spanish, zhīma zǐ in Chinese, gergelim in Portuguese, goma in Japanese, sesame in French, til in Hindi, and konjed in Persian, was domesticated for oil production and used as a condiment [4]. Sesame is an ancient crop originating in Africa and spreading to West Asia, China, India, and Japan. Despite its widespread cultivation in the Southern US, Latin America, Asia, and Africa, it is classified as an orphan crop. Sesame seeds, one of the earliest human-produced and consumed oil crops, were farmed in the Indus Valley between 1750 and 2250 BC [27].
2.1. Cultivation Aspects
Sesame is a highly valuable crop grown in tropical, subtropical, and southern temperate regions worldwide. It is primarily farmed by small farmers and thrives in areas with well-drained soil, moderate rainfall, and extended growing seasons [28]. Although sesame is a hardy crop that can adapt to a variety of environmental situations, careful attention to growing procedures is necessary to produce optimal yields. Since sesame grows best in warm settings, temperature is a key component of successful production. Due to its extreme sensitivity to frost and cold, it thrives in temperatures between 25°C and 35°C [29]. Another crucial factor is rainfall; 500–800 mm of moderate rainfall is best for its growth. However, if additional irrigation is available, sesame can be grown in regions with less rainfall due to its drought-tolerant characteristics. Full sun is necessary for the crop since long days promote seed production and blossoming [30].
The plant requires long periods of sunlight and is a short-day plant. Sesame is propagated through seeds sown in spring, which take around 4 months to fully ripen [31]. Selecting the right soil is essential for growing sesame. The crop thrives in light-textured, well-drained soils with a pH between 5.5 and 8.0, such as sandy loam or loam. Because sesame is sensitive to waterlogging, root rot and other moisture-related problems must be avoided in soils with adequate drainage. Because too much nitrogen might promote vegetative development at the expense of seed production, moderate soil fertility is ideal [32]. Compost and farmyard manure are examples of organic amendments that enhance soil structure and nutrient availability, which is advantageous for sesame development. There are two main types of sesame cultivation. One is monopole, which is unbranched and other is branching, which matures earlier and produces capsules per node [33]. Both types are ideal for dense planting and are often grown alongside short-stemmed crops due to their upright stems and limited shade area. In tropical and subtropical areas, sesame is usually sown during the monsoon-related kharif season (June-July). With irrigation help, it can also be grown throughout the Rabi season (September-October) in regions with little rainfall. Using drilling or broadcasting techniques, the seeds are sown directly into the field at a rate of 4–5 kg/ha. A recommended row spacing of 30–45 cm and plant spacing of 10–15 cm are essential for preventing plant competition [34]. The seeds should be placed at a depth of 1-2 cm to promote good germination. Sesame is drought-resistant and the oil content varies by cultivar and growth season, influenced by ecological factors like precipitation and sunlight [35, 36]. The oil content also affects seed size and color [37]. Even though sesame can withstand drought, its output is greatly impacted by timely irrigation, particularly during crucial growth stages. For seeds to germinate, for pods to form properly during blooming, and for high-quality seeds to develop during the pod stage, moisture is essential. Waterlogging can harm the crop, and thus excessive irrigation should be avoided. When rain fed, sesame usually needs little water, but in arid regions, two to three extra irrigations could be required [38].
For plants to grow healthily, fertilizer application needs to be properly controlled. It is usually adequate to apply a balanced dose of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (20–30 kg/ha for nitrogen, 30–40 kg/ha for phosphorus, and 15–20 kg/ha for potassium). It is advised to divide the nitrogen application into two doses: one at sowing and another 30 days later. By adding organic matter, soil fertility and structure are further improved, increasing sesame yields in a sustainable manner [39]. A crucial component of sesame farming is weed control, especially in the first four to six weeks following seeding when weeds can drastically lower productivity. Pre-emergence herbicides or manual weeding are two efficient ways to manage weed growth. Diseases like Alternaria blight, powdery mildew, and bacterial leaf spot, as well as pests like leaf rollers, gall flies, and pod borers, could endanger the crop. Crop rotation, resistant cultivars, and the prudent application of chemical or biological controls are examples of integrated pest and disease management techniques that effectively preserve crop health [40].
Sesame harvesting calls for precise timing. Depending on the type and weather, the crop can be harvested in 90–120 days. Yellowing pods and falling leaves are signs of maturity. Before threshing to separate the seeds, plants are cut at the base, stacked upright, and let a few days to dry. When seeds are properly dried, their moisture level drops to less than 8%, guaranteeing safe storage. Because they might be spoiled and damaged by insects, sesame seeds should be kept in a cold, dry place. The market value of seeds is further increased by cleaning and classifying those [41].
As an adaptable crop that works well with crop rotation systems, sesame enhances soil fertility and disrupts the cycles of pests and diseases [42]. Utilizing integrated pest management techniques and organic fertilizers can increase the sustainability of its agriculture. Farmers may produce high yields and excellent quality sesame seeds by carefully controlling climate, soil, and agronomic parameters. This makes the ancient crop a useful addition to contemporary agricultural systems [43].
Sesame is difficult to grow in areas that are vulnerable to environmental stressors. Sesame plays an important role in many agro ecosystems, but it faces difficulties and constraints, especially in areas that are characterized by environmental stressors like heat, salinity, and drought. This unpredictability in the climate brought on by global climate change, such as rising temperatures and worsening drought, poses a serious threat to sesame cultivation because drought stress significantly stunts plant growth and development, affecting crop yield [44]. In addition to drought, excessive soil salinity is another significant barrier to sesame production. Although sesame is renowned for its ability to withstand heat and drought, which allows it to thrive in areas with unfavorable conditions, extended exposure to high saline and temperature levels can still result in yield loss, which impacts the amount and quality of sesame produced. As a physiological process that depends on enzyme activity, germination can proceed more quickly if the temperature is raised to the ideal range [45].
2.2. Demography
Sesame, a diploid, self-pollinating oilseed crop, naturally grows as a monoecious plant. Sesame, an annual shrub with white bell-shaped blooms, is frost-sensitive and suitable for crop rotation [46]. Sesame thrives in tropical areas with sandy, well-drained soil, scorching temperatures, and moderate rainfall. Sesame is an herbaceous annual plant that grows one to two meters tall, producing a foul odor. Its leaves range from oblong to lanceolate and are hairy [47]. The plant produces purple to pale flowers resembling foxgloves and 3 cm capsules/fruits holding many seeds. Each plant may produce 15–20 fruits, each containing 70–100 seeds [14]. It matures 80–180 days after cutting and hanging upside down, allowing ripe seeds to accumulate on mats [48]. Its seeds are small, smooth, flat, and oval, with colors ranging from red to black. Seeds have testa, endosperm, and cotyledon, with oil droplets in the cotyledon. Light-colored seeds with thin coatings are considered higher quality and contain more oil. Sesame is a short-day plant that can thrive in locations with longer days [49]. Sesame is a drought-tolerant crop, sensitive to excess water and excess rainfall. It thrives in areas with 625–1100 mm annual rainfall and ideal soil temperature of 20 degrees Celsius [50]. It prefers well drained, fertile, neutral to slightly alkaline soil (pH 5–8) with no air temperature below 30 degrees Celsius [51].
2.3. Production Trends
Shahi-Tump and Qalat in Pakistan have lately been found to contain well-cooked sesame seeds. India, Sudan, Myanmar, China, and Tanzania are the world’s largest producers of sesame. Sesame seed output in African countries has expanded, with Tanzania (because Tanzania Becomes India’s Second-Largest Trade Partner in Africa; India Now Tanzania’s Largest Export Destination) becoming the largest producer from India. Sesame, known for its strong aroma and mild flavor, is widely grown and used in various dishes [18]. Major producers include Uganda, Sudan, Nigeria, India, China, Burma, and Brazil. South Sudan is the world’s fifth-largest producer, primarily by small-holder farmers. Sesame, one of China’s four major traditional edible oil crops, is used in 45% of the country’s production [10].
During 2018, 29 thousand tons of sesame seeds were produced in an area of 176.0 thousand acres in Pakistan as shown in Figures 1 and 2. According to Federal Bureau of Statistics (2018–19), 366 metric tons of sesame seeds, valued at Rs. 9000 million was exported. Potential areas for sesame cultivation in Pakistan are Gujarat, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Attock, Bhakkar, Faisalabad in Punjab, Tharparkar, Dadu, and Hyderabad in Sindh, Kohat and D.I. Khan in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Naseerabad and Lasbela in Baluchistan. In 2022, Pakistan produced +152.34 MT sesame seeds, ranked 13th worldwide in sesame seed production. Pakistan has 2.26% share in global production of sesame seeds [52].
3. Nutritional Composition
Sesame seeds contain multiple nutrients including carbohydrate, fat, proteins, vitamins, minerals, essential amino acids, fatty acids, and phytosterols as shown in Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Common phenolic chemicals include quercetin, kaempferol, naringenin, caffeic acid, and lutein. Sesame seeds are a vital dietary source of oil, protein, vitamins, minerals, and fiber, with numerous nutraceuticals and phytochemicals that enhance their nutritional value.
| Whole sesame seeds per 100 g | ||
|---|---|---|
| Macronutrients | RDA (%) | Nutrient value (g) |
| Carbohydrate | (19.5–20) | (22–25) |
| Glucose | (2.5–3) | (3–4) |
| Fructose | (1–2) | (2–3) |
| Sucrose | (0.5–1) | (1–2) |
| Dietary fiber | (30–32) | (10–12) |
| Protein | (32–35) | (15–18) |
| Saturated fat | (33–34) | (6–7) |
| Monounsaturated fat | (25-26.7) | (17.9–18.7) |
| Polyunsaturated fat | (29–31) | (19.8–21.7) |
| Whole sesame seeds per 100 g | ||
|---|---|---|
| Vitamins | RDA (%) | Nutrient value |
| Thiamin | (67–68) | (1–2) mg |
| Riboflavin | (18–20) | (1–3) mg |
| Niacin | (28–30) | (3–5) mg |
| Pantothenic acid | (58–60) | (1–2) mg |
| Pyridoxine | (44–45) | (1–5) mg |
| Folate | (29–32) | (87–91) mcg |
| Vitamin E | (5–8) | (2–5) mg |
| Vitamin A | (1–7) | (9–15) IU |
| Whole sesame seeds per 100 g | ||
|---|---|---|
| Vitamins | RDA (%) | Nutrient value (mg) |
| Calcium | (81–85) | (970–980) |
| Potassium | (8–10) | (240–250) |
| Sodium | (0.01–0.05) | (10–15) |
| Iron | (80–82) | (18–20) |
| Copper | (50–53) | (3–5) |
| Magnesium | (45–48) | (320–340) |
| Phosphorus | (80–89) | (500–700) |
| Manganese | (68–70) | (3–4) |
| Zinc | (60–65) | (9–11) |
| Amino acid | Sesame seeds (mg/100 g) |
|---|---|
| Essential amino acids | |
| Leucine | 2.2–3.4 |
| Histidine | 2.9–4.5 |
| Valine | 4–7 |
| Lysine | 1–3 |
| Methionine | 1.5–4 |
| Threonine | 3–5 |
| Phenylalanine | 3.4–4.7 |
| Tryptophan | 1–2 |
| Isoleucine | 2.5–5 |
| Nonessential amino acids | |
| Serine | 1–5 |
| Alanine | 2–3 |
| Glutamic acid | 6–9 |
| Asparagine | 12–15 |
| Glycine | 2.3–6.9 |
| Arginine | 1–3 |
| Cysteine | 5–8 |
| Tyrosine | 1.5–4.5 |
| Proline | 3–7 |
| Aspartic acid | 7.2–9.5 |
| Fatty acids | Sesame seeds (mg/100 g) |
|---|---|
| Oleic acid | 12.9–15.6 |
| Linoleic acid | 8.5–10.8 |
| Palmitic acid | 9.9–12.4 |
| Stearic acid | 10.5–13.7 |
| Arachidic acid | 15.5–18.3 |
| Linolenic acid | 20.3–24.7 |
| Palmitoleic acid | 11.4–14.9 |
| Lignoceric acid | 7.2–11.5 |
| Caproic acid | 15.1–18.3 |
| Behenic acid | 5.3–7.5 |
| Myristic acid | 6.7–9.4 |
| Margaric acid | 10.4–13.2 |
Sesame seeds are rich in phenolic acids and flavonoids, including quercetin, naringenin chalcone, and rutin and other phytochemicals (Table 6). They also contain low quantities of kaempferol, myricetin, naringenin, and their glycosides. The main phenolic acids are caffeic and chlorogenic acids, while minor phenolic acids like p-coumaric and ferulic acids and their glucosides are present [62]. Sesame seeds are known as an all-purpose nutrient bank and the “crown of eight grains” due to their high nutrient content. Sesame seeds are rich in crude protein, moisture, fat, carbs, fiber, and minerals [63]. Sesame oil is primarily composed of unsaturated fatty acids, while sesame meal contains beneficial substances like polyphenols and phytate phosphorus. Sesame seeds contain phytochemicals like terpenoids, saponins, alkaloids, steroids, tannins, and flavonoids [62]. They also contain sesamin, sesamol, sesamolin, gamma-tocopherol, flavonol glycosides, cephalin, lecithin, and free phenolic compounds. Sesame seeds are rich in lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and ash [64]. The hull, which makes up 17% of the seed’s weight, is high in oxalic acid, crude fiber, and calcium [65]. Dehulling sesame seeds reduces carbohydrate, fiber, and ash levels but increases lipid and protein levels [66]. S. indicium’s aromatic odor is due to its essential oil, primarily found in green leaves, which is primarily composed of potent antioxidants like sesamol, sesamolin, and sesamin, as well as glycerol esters of various fatty acids [53]. It is important to understand that the concentration of bioactive components is contingent upon several factors such as sesame type, farming techniques, environmental circumstances, maturity, and the industrial conversion of sesame into different byproducts.
| Nutraceutical/phytochemicals | Sesame seeds (μg/100 g) |
|---|---|
| Catechin | 1–2.5 |
| Hydroxybenzoic acid | 7.5–8.5 |
| Kaempferol-3-(p-coumaroyl-diglucoside)-7-glucoside | 2.8–4.7 |
| Epicatechin | 3.5–7.2 |
| Ellagic acid | 4.2–5.3 |
| Protocatechuic acid | 2.6–4.6 |
| Quinic acid | 2.3–3.5 |
| Kaempferol-3-feruloyl-sophoroside-7- glucoside | 4.2–5.1 |
| Quercetin-3, 4 diglucoside-3-(6-feruloy glucoside) | 5.2–6.1 |
| Quercetin-3-(sinapoyl diglucoside)-7- glucoside | 1.5–3.9 |
| Quercetin-3-O-D-galactopyranoside | 1.9–2.2 |
| Sesamol | 18.9–24 |
| Sesamolin | 45–50.4 |
| Sesaminol | 29–34 |
| Sesamin | 95–115 |
| 3-O-p-Coumaroylquinic acid | 10.9–12 |
| Rosmarinic acid hexoside | 11.4–14 |
| Syringic acid | 4.2–5 |
| Quercetin-3-O-triglucoside | 2.5–3 |
| γ-Tocopherol | 46.8–51.7 |
| β-Sitosterol | 11.2–13.4 |
| Campesterol | 15.3–18.6 |
| Stigmasterol | 10.7–13.7 |
| Campestanol | 8.3–10.3 |
| ∆5-Avenasterol | 2.9–4.3 |
| Sitostanol | 5.4–7.23 |
| Chlorogenic acid | 6.2–8.65 |
| Ferulic acid | 8.5–9.4 |
| Caffeine | 1.5–1.9 |
| Saponins | 15.4–17.4 |
4. Health Benefits
Sesame seeds, rich in nutrients, minerals, vitamins, and polyunsaturated fatty acids, are used for treating chronic conditions and combating common skin diseases. They are a nutritious meal with numerous health benefits as shown in Figure 3, including heart health, weight loss, and healthy skin. Most flavonoids have antioxidant properties, which help maintain homeostasis and prevent chronic illnesses.
Sesame seeds are utilized in both traditional and modern medical systems to treat various medical conditions like cancer, atherosclerosis, wound healing, hepatic issues, memory disorders, and hypertension. Sesame oil, with its mild laxative, emollient, and demulcent properties, has multiple medicinal and pharmacological applications. It is antiviral and anti-inflammatory and has been used to treat chronic conditions like hepatitis, diabetes, and migraines. Sesame oil, with antipyretic properties similar to paracetamol, is used to treat joint discomfort, toothaches, scrapes, and cuts. Its unsaturated fatty acids reduce pain by decreasing prostaglandins and leukotrienes [67]. Sesame oil is rich in vitamin E, gamma tocopherols, and lignans like sesamin, sesamolin, and sesamol and has antihypertensive, antiatherogenic, antithrombotic, antiobesity, and lipolytic properties [68]. Its oil content lubricates the digestive track and nourishes the interior organs. Sesame oil can aid in burn recovery, soothe minor burns, and act as a solvent, pharmaceutical carrier, skin softener, and natural UV protectant [69]. Massage with sesame oil can alleviate discomfort in chemotherapy-induced phlebitis patients. Sesame oil massage is effective in treating acute traumatic limb pain due to its bioactive component properties such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, antihypertensive, antimelanogenic, and anticholesterol properties [70]. Sesame seeds contain natural antibacterial agent that combats common skin diseases causing pathogens like Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, and athlete’s foot fungus. It kills common cold bacteria and treats psoriasis and dry skin conditions. Sesame oil has strong antibacterial activity, similar to kanamycin, and the largest zone of inhibition against Salmonellatyphi [25].
4.1. Antioxidant Properties
Sesame seeds are rich in antioxidants. Sesamin in sesame seeds is a potent natural antioxidant and has been found to reduce reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation in human neuroblastoma by increasing catalase and superoxide dismutase activity, thus protecting cells from oxidative stress [71]. Sesamin protects the liver from oxidative damage, is used to treat wounds, and has natural antibacterial effects on common skin pathogens and fungi [5].
Sesame seeds’ high phenol and flavonoid content provides antioxidant and antiproliferative properties. Sesamin, sesamolin, and myristic acid in sesame seeds have antioxidant effects. Roasting sesame seeds enhances antioxidant activity, and sesamin and sesaminol transform into sesamol at high temperatures [72]. Sesamol is the primary antioxidative component in sesame seed, particularly promising for wound healing [73, 74]. Sesame seeds contain a range of beneficial compounds, including phenolics (67–154 mg per 100 g), flavonoids (19–43 mg per 100 g), γ-tocopherol (46.8–51.7 mg per 100 g), phytosterols (740.2–896.4 mg per 100 g), and lignans (405–1178 mg per 100 g) [75].
4.2. Antihypertensive and CVD Properties
Heart disease is a collective term that includes hypertension and atherosclerosis. Sesamin in sesame seeds have lipid-reducing benefits stemming from its ability to regulate fatty acid and cholesterol metabolism, reducing atherogenic LDL, VLDL, and TG levels while increasing atheroprotective HDL levels as shown in Table 7. Sesamin may decrease blood ALT, AST, ALP, urea nitrogen, and creatinine levels, potentially protecting liver and kidney function [84]. Sesamin enhances fat oxidation and reduces lipogenesis by inhibiting lipogenic enzymes in the liver [26]. Lecithin and lignans in sesame seeds reduce harmful cholesterol synthesis. Sesame seeds prolong erythrocyte hemolysis and decrease LDL oxidation, while sesame protein isolate reduces cholesterol and lipid peroxidation [85]. Sesame seed oil also boosts glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase, decreases oxidative stress in hypertension, and is beneficial for heart hypertrophy [86].
| Study | Participants | Model used | Methodology | Key findings | Conclusion | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Antihypertensive effects of sesamin in humans | 25 middle-aged subjects with mild hypertension | In vivo study. Clinical study model or human intervention trial | Double-blind, cross-over, placebo-controlled trial; 4-week administration of 60 mg sesamin vs. placebo |
|
Sesamin has a significant antihypertensive effect, suggesting its potential for cardiovascular disease prevention | [76] |
| Antihypertensive and antioxidant effects of dietary black sesame meal in pre-hypertensive humans | 22 women and 8 men with prehypertension randomly divided into two groups, 15 subjects per group | In vivo study. Human clinical trial/intervention study model | Participants were ingested 2.52 g black sesame meal capsules vs. placebo capsules each day for 4 weeks. BP were measured before and after 4-week intervention | • Significantly decreased systolic BP (129.3 vs. 121.0 mmHg) in controlled vs placebo group respectively (p < 0.05) | Black sesame meal may have antihypertensive benefits while enhancing antioxidant status. It has a positive impact in preventing hypertensive disorders | [77] |
| Sesame oil consumption exerts a beneficial effect on endothelial function in hypertensive men | 30 hypertensive men in a two-phase study were investigated about effects of sesame oil on endothelial function and to detect the underlying mechanisms, both in the postprandial state and after long-term consumption | In vivo study. Human clinical trial/intervention study model |
|
|
Sesame oil consumption exerts a beneficial effect on endothelial function of endothelium-dependent FMD of the brachial artery in hypertensive individuals and this effect is sustained with long-term daily use | [78] |
| A blend of sesame oil and rice bran oil lowers blood pressure and improves the lipid profile in mild-to-moderate hypertensive patients | In this prospective, open-label dietary approach experiment, 300 hypertensive patients and 100 normotensives were divided into groups | In vivo study. Clinical study model or human intervention trial | Group 1 and 2 (normotensives and hypertensive) treated with sesame oil blend respectively for 60 days |
|
Using a blend of sesame oil and rice bran oil as cooking oil showed a significant antihypertensive and lipid-lowering action and had noteworthy additive effect with antihypertensive medication. | [79] |
| Can sesame consumption improve blood pressure? A systematic review and meta-analysis | 843 participants across 8 controlled trials | In vivo study. Clinical study model or human intervention trial | Systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials; random effects model used |
|
Sesame consumption is associated with reductions in both systolic and diastolic BP, warranting further investigation | [80] |
| The effect of sesame oil consumption compared to sunflower oil on lipid profile, blood pressure, and anthropometric indices in women with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: a randomized double-blind controlled trial | This randomized, double-blind, controlled trial was carried out on 60 women with NAFLD. Subjects were randomly assigned to the SO group (n = 30) and SFO group (n = 30) | In vivo study. Clinical study model or human intervention trial | Each person consuming 30 g of oil per day for 12 weeks. All the participants received a hypocaloric diet (− 500 kcal/day) during the study. Lipid profile, blood pressure, and anthropometric indices were assessed at pre- and post-intervention phases |
|
This clinical trial revealed that sesame oil has been effective in improvement of diastolic BP and total cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol compared to the sunflower oil | [81] |
| Tahini consumption affects blood pressure and endothelial function in healthy males | Twenty healthy men with mean age of 28 y and mean BMI of 25.81 kg/m2 were investigated for the postprandial effect of tahini consumption on blood pressure, endothelial function, and arterial stiffness. | In vivo study. Clinical study model or human intervention trial | After a 12 h fast, baseline blood was collected, participants consumed 50 g of tahini, and blood collection was repeated 4 h post-prandially. Assessment of blood pressure, pulse rate, hemodynamic parameters, and endothelial function was performed at baseline and at the end of the trial |
|
This is the first study to report that tahini consumption can lower blood pressure and pulse rate and improve endothelial function, suggesting a healthy snack in place of others with a less desirable lipid profile | [82] |
| The effects of sesamin supplementation on obesity, blood pressure, and lipid profile: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials | Seven trials (n = 212 participants) were included in the overall analysis. Five databases were searched electronically from inception to July 2021 to identify randomized controlled trials that assessed the impact of sesamin on obesity, blood pressure, and lipid profile | Systematic review and meta-analysis study model of in vivo studies and randomized controlled trials (RCTs) | This systematic summarizes evidence of the effects of sesamin supplementation on obesity, blood pressure, and lipid profile in humans by performing a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. WMD and SD were used to present the major outcomes |
|
Sesamin can be used as an obtainable dietary supplement to improve blood pressure and blood lipids, and further as a health product to prevent metabolic diseases | [83] |
- Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; BP, blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; FMD, flow-mediated dilatation; HDL, high density lipoprotein; ICAM, intracellular adhesion molecule; LDL, low density lipoprotein; NAFLD, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease; NOS, nitric oxide synthase; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SD, standard deviation; SFO, sunflower oil; SO, sesame oil; WMD, weighted mean difference.
4.3. Anticancerous Properties
Sesamin in sesame seeds has anticancer properties due to its antiproliferative, proapoptotic, antimetastatic, and pro-auto phagocytic activities. It suppresses tumor formation and progression mechanisms and acts as a metabolic regulator with antimutagenic, antihepatotoxic, and anti-inflammatory effects [87]. Sesamolin in sesame seeds causes apoptosis in human lymphoid leukemia cells through DNA fragmentation and can be converted into mammalian lignin, enter lactone, and enterodiol, which protect against breast cancer. Sesamin inhibits cell growth in the early G1 cell cycle [21].
Sesamin has a broad anticancer action as shown in Figure 4, which makes it a natural substance with potential therapeutic uses in cancer management and prevention. Because it can target many pathways, it is effective in reducing inflammation, tumor development, and metastasis while increasing immune-mediated cytotoxicity and death [24]. Through a complex mechanism that targets many cellular pathways, sesamin, a bioactive lignan present in sesame seeds, demonstrates strong anticancer effects. One important mechanism for stopping the growth of cancer cells is the arrest of the cell cycle at the G1/S phase. Alongside this, apoptosis is induced, which is mediated by the MAPK/ERK pathway being modulated. This changes the acetylation and methylation of histones, which in turn affects the expression of genes [24]. Sesamin specifically increases proapoptotic proteins including BAX, BAK, and BIM while downregulating antiapoptotic proteins like BCL-2 and BCL-XL. Additionally, by blocking the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, sesamin promotes the p53 tumor suppressor protein, which in turn suppresses nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) activity and lowers proinflammatory cytokines like TNF-α and IL-1β, thereby reducing inflammation and tumor progression [74].
Furthermore, sesamin decreases angiogenesis and lowers the density of tumor micro vessels by blocking the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). By limiting the blood flow to tumors, this inhibition prevents them from growing and spreading. Additionally, sesamin scavenges ROS, reducing oxidative stress, a known factor in the development of cancer [88]. By suppressing the expression of androgen receptor (AR) and estrogen receptor α (ERα), sesamin also prevents hormone-dependent cancer pathways. By blocking matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), it also stops tumor invasion and metastasis. The immune system’s capacity to target cancer cells is increased by sesamin, which also activates cytotoxic T cells and natural killer (NK) cells and increases antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. Additionally, by activating autophagy-related proteins including LC3 and Beclin-1, it causes autophagy cell death, which enhances its anticancer properties [89].
4.4. Anti-Inflammatory Properties
Sesamol in sesame seeds is a potent anti-inflammatory component that protects against endotoxin-associated damage by inhibiting inflammatory mediator release and reducing Nf-κb activation [90]. Sesame oil enhances liver chemical detoxification, reduces the inflammation risk, and protects against inflammatory stress, linked to endotoxin poisoning [91]. Sesame seed paste and oil have been traditionally used to aid in wound healing due to their anti-inflammatory properties, which promote healing [92]. Sesame oil, rich in phenols, flavonoids, and saponins, has been found to prevent hyperlipidemia by lowering serum levels of liver enzymes, TC, LDL, and TG, while significantly increasing HDL levels [93].
Sesame oil and its lignan compounds, particularly sesamin and sesamol, exhibit anti-inflammatory effects in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) through the mechanism as shown in Figure 5. They inhibit proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and modulate immune responses by suppressing T-cell activation and enhancing regulatory T-cell function. Sesame oil also scavenges ROS, reduces lipid peroxidation, and enhances antioxidant enzymes. Additionally, it inhibits inflammatory mediators (COX-2, PGE2, and MMPs) and angiogenesis, while modulating signaling pathways (MAPK, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, and Nrf2). These actions collectively suppress joint damage, cartilage degradation, and bone resorption, ultimately ameliorating RA symptoms. By targeting various inflammatory pathways, sesame oil demonstrates potential as a complementary therapeutic agent for RA management.
4.5. Antidiabetic Properties
Sesame seeds have antidiabetic property because they are rich in dietary fiber and can prevent postprandial hyperglycemia by blocking carbohydrate-metabolizing enzymes [94]. They also help maintain blood glucose levels and can be beneficial for diabetic nephropathy patients [95]. Sesame oil combined with glibenclamide can treat hyperglycemia. Bioactive lignans in sesame improve insulin release from pancreatic beta cells, reducing insulin resistance and positively affecting serum glucose, HbA1c, and insulin concentrations in diabetic patients [96].
Sesame seeds exhibit antidiabetic effects through the mechanism mentioned in Figure 6. Sesame enhances insulin sensitivity by activating IRS-1 and PI3K, increases glucose uptake in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue, and inhibits α-glucosidase enzymes to delay carbohydrate absorption. Sesame seeds also protect pancreatic β-cells from apoptosis, reduce oxidative stress and inflammation, and modulate the gut microbiome. Additionally, they regulate lipid metabolism by inhibiting lipogenesis and enhancing lipolysis and improve glucose homeostasis by increasing GLP-1 secretion. These mechanisms collectively contribute to reduced fasting blood glucose, HbA1c, and improved lipid profiles, demonstrating sesame seeds’ potential as a complementary therapeutic agent for managing diabetes.
5. Culinary Applications
Sesame seed is a popular medicinal plant with high nutritional value and taste. Sesame is used in the food industry as an ingredient in various food products due to its high oil content, pleasant scent, and resistance to oxidation [97]. It is used in various dishes, including bread, biscuits, burgers, cakes, dressings, snacks, and edible oil [98]. Sesame is a popular and adaptable food used in traditional Chinese dishes like sesame oil, paste, candies, cakes, and dumplings (Figure 7). The Chinese are known for their ability to create a variety of delectable dishes using sesame [99]. Sesame seeds are widely used globally in households due to its property of being a high-antioxidant and stable vegetable oil [100]. Sesame seeds are a versatile ingredient in various dishes worldwide, enhancing the flavor and texture of bread, biscuits, crackers, and salad dressings [101].
Dehulled seeds are used in recipes like halva, laddu, and chikki, while sesame flour is used in ready-to-eat dishes and supplements methionine levels. Sesame protein is used in nutritional drinks, tahini, bread dips, rice and noodle meals, and sweet meats like rewari and gajak [102]. Sesame oil, an aromatic oil derived from sesame seeds, is a classic product of sesame seed processing. It contains linoleic and linolenic acids, lignans, natural vitamin E, and phytosterols. Sesame meal, a defatted byproduct, is produced from the extraction of sesame oil. The residue from sesame can be processed into a powder for cooking, adding value to the food sector [103]. It contains a balanced amino acid composition, dietary fiber, and essential bioactive substances like lignans. Research has focused on compounding sesame products to increase nutritional content while preserving its original flavor [104]. Sesame compounding goods, which combine sesame with legumes, grains, nuts, fruits, and vegetables, have expanded the sesame product range and boosted the market [105]. Studies show that black sesame can be combined with yams, red dates, soybeans, and peanuts for compound beverages [49, 106]. Sesame protein isolate is a nutritious and balanced ingredient [107].
5.1. Nonculinary Applications
Sesame oil is a high-quality raw material for soap and cosmetic manufacture. Sesame oil has a high nondrying property and is used to make soap and cream [108]. According to research, sesame oil could be a good raw material for biodiesel manufacturing by transesterification its fatty acid content [103]. Several studies have indicated that sesame seeds can be used as a feed ingredient for fish, chickens, and other livestock. Sesame seeds can be a significant ingredient in fish feed, as demonstrated by the enhanced development rate and weight gain observed in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) when fed diets that include 20% sesame seeds [98]. Sesame seed, in particular, is high in the amino acid methionine and can be used to replace other plant-based fishmeal that lacks this critical amino acid. Thus, sesame meal could be utilized to improve fish growth and meat quality. Sesame meal has been shown to greatly increase milk output. Incorporating whole sesame seeds in goat concentrates at 10% improved milk yield (1594 g/h/day) but not significantly as compared to feeding solely forages without sesame seeds [32, 109]. Sesame seeds can be a feasible and cost-effective alternative to expensive proteins in animal feeds, as they have beneficial impacts on growth rate and meat quality [21].
Table 8 compares the nonculinary applications of phytochemicals in sesame seeds, highlighting their industrial, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical uses. Sesame seed extracts offer antifungal, bactericidal, and cosmetic benefits. Sesame seed phytochemicals provide antioxidant, cardiovascular, and anti-inflammatory benefits, making them valuable sources of bioactive compounds for nonculinary applications.
| Category | Nonculinary applications (sesame seed) | Bioactive components (sesame seed) |
|---|---|---|
| Industrial uses |
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| Nutraceutical uses |
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| Pharmaceutical uses |
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- Note: Application overlaps: sesame seeds provide antioxidant, antibacterial, hearth health, and skin-enhancing properties.
6. Safe Consumption
Fresh fruits, vegetables, and herbs may not provide as beneficial nutrients as supplements, and antioxidant supplements have not been proven effective in preventing illness. Sesame is safe to consume and it is widely used all over the world. 1-2 tablespoon of sesame seeds and 1-2 sesame seed capsule can be consumed twice a day [5]. 1/4–1/2 teaspoon of sesame seeds powder can be consumed once or twice daily. Consuming 60 mg of sesamin helps to lower blood pressure [83]. Sesame oil can be given orally for a week to reduce bloating problem [110]. Around 18.39 mg/day of lignans from sesame can be given to males while 13.26 mg/day is recommended for females [110].
Sesame allergies are more common in children and less severe in adults. Consuming only two sesame seeds or the lowest sesame protein can cause serious reactions in sensitive individuals [5]. Sesame protein and oil components can cause immune responses. Symptoms include hives, itching, rashes, asthma, cramps, diarrhea, and vomiting. Sesame seeds, including brown, white, and black varieties, are known to contain protein, lipid, and unknown allergens [111]. Current research indicates five clinical manifestations of allergic reactions to sesame seeds such as non-IgE immediate hypersensitivity to oil and lipid allergens, IgE-mediated immediate hypersensitivity to protein allergens, acute food protein–induced enterocolitis syndrome, and unknown eosinophilic esophagitis [112, 113].
7. Conclusion
Sesame seeds are globally renowned for their culinary versatility, rich nutritional profiles, and potential health benefits. Geographical factors and agricultural practices influence sesame seed production, impacting nutritional content and bioavailability. Sesame seeds create a nutrient-dense combination with other foods that optimizes overall nutritional benefits. Sesame seeds have multifaceted therapeutic applications, such as anti-inflammatory and cardiovascular effects, as well as functional foods. Including sesame seeds in daily meals improves people’s overall health and well-being.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Funding
The authors received no specific funding for this work.
Open Research
Data Availability Statement
Data are contained within the article.
