Principles of Pharmacokinetics: Predicting Human Pharmacokinetics in Drug Discovery
Takehito Yamamoto
Department of Pharmacy, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-8655 Japan
Search for more papers by this authorHiroshi Suzuki
Department of Pharmacy, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-8655 Japan
Search for more papers by this authorAkihiro Hisaka
Department of Pharmacy, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-8655 Japan
Pharmacology and Pharmacokinetics, 22nd Medical Center, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Search for more papers by this authorTakehito Yamamoto
Department of Pharmacy, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-8655 Japan
Search for more papers by this authorHiroshi Suzuki
Department of Pharmacy, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-8655 Japan
Search for more papers by this authorAkihiro Hisaka
Department of Pharmacy, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-8655 Japan
Pharmacology and Pharmacokinetics, 22nd Medical Center, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Search for more papers by this authorMingshe Zhu
Department of Biotransformation, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSummary
This chapter contains sections titled:
-
Introduction
-
Physiological Pharmacokinetics
-
Prediction of Absorption
-
Distribution
-
Metabolism and excretion
-
Drug–Drug interactions
-
Practical issues That Need to Be Considered
-
Abbrevations and Notations
-
References
REFERENCES
- Adachi Y, Suzuki H, Sugiyama Y. Quantitative evaluation of the function of small intestinal P-glycoprotein: Comparative studies between in situ and in vitro. Pharm Res 2003; 20: 1163–1169.
- Adolph EF. Quantitative relations in the physiological constitutions of mammals. Science 1949; 109: 579–585.
- Bell NH, Johnson RH. Bisphosphonates in the treatment of osteoporosis. Endocrine 1997; 6: 203–206.
- Brandsch M. Transport of drugs by proton-coupled peptide transporters: Pearls and pitfalls. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2009; 5: 887–905.
- Buxton ILO. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics: The dynamics of drug absorption, distribution, action, and elimination. In Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, Laurence L, Brunton JSLaKLP, Eds. McGraw-Hill, New York, 2006, pp. 1–40.
- Caspary WF. Physiology and pathophysiology of intestinal absorption. Am J Clin Nutr 1992; 55: 299S–308S.
- Chiba M, Ishii Y, Sugiyama Y. Prediction of hepatic clearance in human from in vitro data for successful drug development. AAPS J 2009; 11: 262–276.
- Doherty MM, Charman WN. The mucosa of the small intestine: How clinically relevant as an organ of drug metabolism? Clin Pharmacokinet 2002; 41: 235–253.
- Evans DC, Watt AP, Nicoll-Griffith DA, Baillie TA. Drug-protein adducts: An industry perspective on minimizing the potential for drug bioactivation in drug discovery and development. Chem Res Toxicol 2004; 17: 3–16.
- Fagerholm U. Prediction of human pharmacokinetics—Evaluation of methods for prediction of volume of distribution. J Pharm Pharmacol 2007; 59: 1181–1190.
- Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Guidance for Industry: Safety Testing of Drug Metabolites, FDA, Washington, DC, 2008.
- Food and Drug Administration (FDA), White Paper: Innovation or Stagnation? Challenge and Opportunity on the Critical Path to New Medical Products. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, FDA, Washington, DC, 2004.
- Frank R, Hargreaves R. Clinical biomarkers in drug discovery and development. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2003; 2: 566–580.
- Fuse E, Tanii H, Asanome K, Kurata N, Kobayashi H, Kuwabara T, Kobayashi S, Sugiyama Y. Altered pharmacokinetics of a novel anticancer drug, UCN-01, caused by specific high affinity binding to alpha 1-acid glycoprotein in humans. Cancer Res 1999; 59: 1054–1060.
- Fuse E, Kobayashi T, Inaba M, Sugiyama Y. Prediction of the maximal tolerated dose (MTD) and therapeutic effect of anticancer drugs in humans: Integration of pharmacokinetics with pharmacodynamics and toxicodynamics. Cancer Treat Rev 1995; 21: 133–157.
- Galetin A, Gertz M, Houston JB. Potential role of intestinal first-pass metabolism in the prediction of drug-drug interactions. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2008; 4: 909–922.
- Galetin A, Houston JB. Intestinal and hepatic metabolic activity of five cytochrome P450 enzymes: Impact on prediction of first-pass metabolism. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2006; 318: 1220–1229.
- Hasegawa M, Kusuhara H, Endou H, Sugiyama Y. Contribution of organic anion transporters to the renal uptake of anionic compounds and nucleoside derivatives in rat. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2003; 305: 1087–1097.
- Hermo MP, Nemutlu E, Kir S, Barroń D, Barbosa J. Improved determination of quinolones in milk at their MRL levels using LC-UV, LC-FD, LC-MS and LC-MS/MS and validation in line with regulation 2002/657/EC. Anal Chim Acta 2008; 613: 98–107.
- Houston JB, Galetin A. Methods for predicting in vivo pharmacokinetics using data from in vitro assays. Curr Drug Metab 2008; 9: 940–951.
- Hubatsch I, Ragnarsson EG, Artursson P. Determination of drug permeability and prediction of drug absorption in Caco-2 monolayers. Nat Protoc 2007; 2: 2111–2119.
- Ito K, Brown HS, Houston JB. Database analyses for the prediction of in vivo drug-drug interactions from in vitro data. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2004; 57: 473–486.
- Ito K, Hallifax D, Obach RS, Houston JB. Impact of parallel pathways of drug elimination and multiple cytochrome P450 involvement on drug-drug interactions: CYP2D6 paradigm. Drug Metab Dispos 2005a; 33: 837–844.
- Ito K, Iwatsubo T, Kanamitsu S, Ueda K, Suzuki H, Sugiyama Y. Prediction of pharmacokinetic alterations caused by drug-drug interactions: Metabolic interaction in the liver. Pharmacol Rev 1998; 50: 387–412.
- Ito K, Suzuki H, Horie T, Sugiyama Y. Apical/basolateral surface expression of drug transporters and its role in vectorial drug transport. Pharm Res 2005b; 22: 1559–1577.
-
Iwatsubo T, Hirota N, Ooie T, Suzuki H, Sugiyama Y. Prediction of in vivo drug disposition from in vitro data based on physiological pharmacokinetics. Biopharm Drug Dispos 1996; 17: 273–310.
10.1002/(SICI)1099-081X(199605)17:4<273::AID-BDD961>3.0.CO;2-R CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
- Iwatsubo T, Hisaka A, Suzuki H, Sugiyama Y. Prediction of in vivo nonlinear first-pass hepatic metabolism of YM796 from in vitro metabolic data. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1998; 286: 122–127.
- Iwatsubo T, Suzuki H, Shimada N, Chiba K, Ishizaki T, Green CE, Tyson CA, Yokoi T, Kamataki T, Sugiyama Y. Prediction of in vivo hepatic metabolic clearance of YM796 from in vitro data by use of human liver microsomes and recombinant P-450 isozymes. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1997a; 282: 909–919.
- Iwatsubo T, Suzuki H, Sugiyama Y. Prediction of species differences (rats, dogs, humans) in the in vivo metabolic clearance of YM796 by the liver from in vitro data. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1997b; 283: 462–469.
- Jusko WJ. Guidelines for collection and analysis of pharmacokinetic data. In Applied Pharmacokinetics, William E, Evans JJSaWJJ, Eds. Applied Therapeutics, Vancouver, WA, 1992, pp. 2-1–2-44.
- Kato M, Chiba K, Hisaka A, Ishigami M, Kayama M, Mizuno N, Nagata Y, Takakuwa S, Tsukamoto Y, Ueda K, Kusuhara H, Ito K, Sugiyama Y. The intestinal first-pass metabolism of substrates of CYP3A4 and P-glycoprotein-quantitative analysis based on information from the literature. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2003; 18: 365–372.
- Kita Y, Fugono T, Imada A. Comparative pharmacokinetics of carumonam and aztreonam in mice, rats, rabbits, dogs, and cynomolgus monkeys. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1986; 29: 127–134.
- Kitamura S, Maeda K, Sugiyama Y. Recent progresses in the experimental methods and evaluation strategies of transporter functions for the prediction of the pharmacokinetics in humans. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2008; 377: 617–628.
- Kolars JC, Awni WM, Merion RM, Watkins PB. First-pass metabolism of cyclosporin by the gut. Lancet 1991; 338: 1488–1490.
- Komura H, Iwaki M. Species differences in in vitro and in vivo small intestinal metabolism of CYP3A substrates. J Pharm Sci 2008; 97: 1775–1800.
- Ku MS. Use of the Biopharmaceutical Classification System in early drug development. AAPS J 2008; 10: 208–212.
- Kusuhara H, Sugiyama Y. In vitro–in vivo extrapolation of transporter-mediated clearance in the liver and kidney. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2009; 24: 37–52.
- Lappin G, Garner RC. The utility of microdosing over the past 5 years. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2008; 4: 1499–1506.
- Lentz KA. Current methods for predicting human food effect. AAPS J 2008; 10: 282–288.
- Lilja JJ, Kivisto KT, Neuvonen PJ. Grapefruit juice–simvastatin interaction: Effect on serum concentrations of simvastatin, simvastatin acid, and HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1998; 64: 477–483.
- Liu L, Pang KS. An integrated approach to model hepatic drug clearance. Eur J Pharm Sci 2006; 29: 215–230.
- Masubuchi N, Makino C, Murayama N. Prediction of in vivo potential for metabolic activation of drugs into chemically reactive intermediate: Correlation of in vitro and in vivo generation of reactive intermediates and in vitro glutathione conjugate formation in rats and humans. Chem Res Toxicol 2007; 20: 455–464.
- Montandon B, Roberts RJ, Fischer LJ. Computer simulation of sulfobromophthalein kinetics in the rat using flow-limited models with extrapolation to man. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm 1975; 3: 277–290.
- Mueller EA, Kovarik JM, van Bree JB, Grevel J, Lucker PW, Kutz K. Influence of a fat-rich meal on the pharmacokinetics of a new oral formulation of cyclosporine in a crossover comparison with the market formulation. Pharm Res 1994; 11: 151–155.
- Nakayama S, Atsumi R, Takakusa H, Kobayashi Y, Kurihara A, Nagai Y, Nakai D, Okazaki O. A zone classification system for risk assessment of idiosyncratic drug toxicity using daily dose and covalent binding. Drug Metab Dispos 2009; 37: 1970–1977.
- Naritomi Y, Terashita S, Kagayama A, Sugiyama Y. Utility of hepatocytes in predicting drug metabolism: Comparison of hepatic intrinsic clearance in rats and humans in vivo and in vitro. Drug Metab Dispos 2003; 31: 580–588.
- Naritomi Y, Terashita S, Kimura S, Suzuki A, Kagayama A, Sugiyama Y. Prediction of human hepatic clearance from in vivo animal experiments and in vitro metabolic studies with liver microsomes from animals and humans. Drug Metab Dispos 2001; 29: 1316–1324.
- O'Connor P, Feely J Clinical pharmacokinetics and endocrine disorders. Therapeutic implications. Clin Pharmacokinet 1987; 13: 345–364.
- Pang KS, Rowland M. Hepatic clearance of drugs. I. Theoretical considerations of a “well-stirred” model and a “parallel tube” model. Influence of hepatic blood flow, plasma and blood cell binding, and the hepatocellular enzymatic activity on hepatic drug clearance. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm 1977a; 5: 625–653.
- Pang KS, Rowland M. Hepatic clearance of drugs. II. Experimental evidence for acceptance of the “well-stirred” model over the “parallel tube” model using lidocaine in the perfused rat liver in situ preparation. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm 1977b; 5: 655–680.
- Roberts MS, Rowland M. A dispersion model of hepatic elimination: 1. Formulation of the model and bolus considerations. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm 1986; 14: 227–260.
- Rowland M, Benet LZ, Graham GG. Clearance concepts in pharmacokinetics. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm 1973; 1: 123–136.
- Sasaki M, Suzuki H, Ito K, Abe T, Sugiyama Y. Transcellular transport of organic anions across a double-transfected Madin-Darby canine kidney II cell monolayer expressing both human organic anion-transporting polypeptide (OATP2/SLC21A6) and multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2/ABCC2). J Biol Chem 2002; 277: 6497–6503.
- Sasaki M, Suzuki H, Aoki J, Ito K, Meier PJ, Sugiyama Y. Prediction of in vivo biliary clearance from the in vitro transcellular transport of organic anions across a double-transfected Madin-Darby canine kidney II monolayer expressing both rat organic anion transporting polypeptide 4 and multidrug resistance associated protein 2. Mol Pharmacol 2004; 66: 450–459.
- Sawada Y, Hanano M, Sugiyama Y, Iga T. Prediction of the disposition of nine weakly acidic and six weakly basic drugs in humans from pharmacokinetic parameters in rats. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm 1985; 13: 477–492.
- Shah P, Jogani V, Bagchi T, Misra A. Role of Caco-2 cell monolayers in prediction of intestinal drug absorption. Biotechnol Prog 2006; 22: 186–198.
- Shitara Y, Horie T, Sugiyama Y. Transporters as a determinant of drug clearance and tissue distribution. Eur J Pharm Sci 2006; 27: 425–446.
- Singh SS. Preclinical pharmacokinetics: An approach towards safer and efficacious drugs. Curr Drug Metab 2006; 7: 165–182.
- Thummel KE, O'Shea D, Paine MF, Shen DD, Kunze KL, Perkins JD, Wilkinson GR. Oral first-pass elimination of midazolam involves both gastrointestinal and hepatic CYP3A-mediated metabolism. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1996; 59: 491–502.
- Tozer TN. Concepts basic to pharmacokinetics. Pharmacol Ther 1981; 12: 109–131.
- Wagner JG. In Fundamentals of Clinical Pharmacokinetics, Wagner JG, Ed. Drug Intelligence Publication, Hamilton, IL, 1975.
- Wienkers LC, Heath TG. Predicting in vivo drug interactions from in vitro drug discovery data. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2005; 4: 825–833.
- Wu CY, Benet LZ, Hebert MF, Gupta SK, Rowland M, Gomez DY, Wacher VJ. Differentiation of absorption and first-pass gut and hepatic metabolism in humans: Studies with cyclosporine. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1995; 58: 492–497.
- Wynne HA, Cope LH, Mutch E, Rawlins MD, Woodhouse KW, James OF. The effect of age upon liver volume and apparent liver blood flow in healthy man. Hepatology 1989; 9: 297–301.
- Yamamoto T, Itoga H, Kohno Y, Nagata K, Yamazoe Y. Prediction of oral clearance from in vitro metabolic data using recombinant CYPs: Comparison among well-stirred, parallel-tube, distributed and dispersion models. Xenobiotica 2005; 35: 627–646.
- Yamashita S, Tanaka Y, Endoh Y, Taki Y, Sakane T, Nadai T, Sezaki H. Analysis of drug permeation across Caco-2 monolayer: Implication for predicting in vivo drug absorption. Pharm Res 1997; 14: 486–491.
- Yoshigae Y, Imai T, Aso T, Otagiri M. Species differences in the disposition of propranolol prodrugs derived from hydrolase activity in intestinal mucosa. Life Sci 1998; 62: 1231–1241.
- Zhang L, Zhang YD, Zhao P, Huang SM. Predicting drug-drug interactions: an FDA perspective. AAPS J 2009; 11: 300–306.