Recently, biophysical, environmental, and economic indicators have provided strong evidence that natural resources in Ethiopia are severely deteriorating due to natural and anthropogenic disturbances. As a result, only small remnant woody species were left around churches, national parks, and some protected community forests through legal protections and religious sanctions. The study aimed to identify the highest biomass carbon-storing forest category for climate change mitigation in Ethiopia. The above- and belowground biomass carbon stock data were collected and extracted from published and unpublished scientific reports based on their relevance and linkage to the topic, publication date, quality of the source, methodological rigor, clarity, and accessibility. The biomass carbon stock variation among each category was analyzed using ANOVA version 20. The mean biomass carbon stock of church, community, and national park forests was 151.80, 303.55, and 160 tons/ha, respectively. According to the result, each forest category has been playing an important role in carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation in the country. The study concludes that community forests exhibit the highest biomass carbon stock and contribute their critical role in climate change mitigation, supporting ecosystem services, and maintaining ecological stability.

1. Introduction

Landscape forest expansion and sustainable forest development are the fundamental approaches for reducing atmospheric carbon concentration. It is an environmentally acceptable and cost-effective way to capture and store large amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide [1]. It was also simultaneously developed tradable carbon credits that offer financial incentives for considering carbon storage in forest management decisions [2]. Among these, tropical forests are playing a major role in the global carbon cycle, storing up to 46% of the world’s terrestrial carbon pool. Recently, they have acted as a carbon reservoir and functioned as a constant sink of atmospheric carbon dioxide [3, 4]. Africa also plays a crucial role in carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation in the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂). These forests can absorb significant amounts of CO₂ through photosynthesis and storing it in trees, vegetation, and soils [5]. However, they are the most threatened and least protected forests due to population growth, weak environmental governance, and policy frameworks [6, 7].

The continent of Africa only lost approximately 3.9 million hectares of forest annually from 2010 to 2020 through natural (earthquakes, hurricanes, and landslides) and anthropogenic (deforestation, agricultural expansion, and overgrazing) factors [8]. It can also emit nearly two billion tons of CO₂ equivalents per year [7, 9]. Forest and agricultural sectors account for 75% of the region’s total emissions [9]. The sub-Saharan African region, including Ethiopia, has also recorded the fastest conversion of forest land to agriculture and other land uses in the past 20 years [10].

The vegetation of Ethiopia is extremely complex as a result of its great variations in altitude, moisture, and temperature [11]. The country is endowed with an immense wealth of biological resources that have a significant role in climate change mitigation. However, vegetation resources, including forests, are being destroyed at an alarming rate because of agricultural expansion, deforestation, grazing, and overexploitation for various purposes such as fuelwood, charcoal, construction material, and timber. Due to this, the country has lost approximately 60% of its natural forests since the nineteenth century [12]. This can play a major negative role in determining carbon storage and climate change mitigation in the country. For example, the conversion of forests to cropland reduces soil organic carbon by 62% within 10 years and by 75% in 53 years [10]. Similarly, the conversion of forest to open grazing land reduces soil organic carbon stock by 15%–48% in Ethiopia [10, 13]. It indicates that removing trees is apparently removing the bulk of carbon stock. Therefore, the central focus of any carbon management project is to conserve forests to sustain their existing carbon stock and future sequestration potential and assist regeneration [14].

Recently, a small patch remnant of dry Afromontane forests has been found primarily around churches [7, 10, 15–17], community forests, and national parks. They store much above- and belowground carbon compared to other terrestrial ecosystems [18]. However, the role of each forest in carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation has not been well recognized and documented [19]. In addition, the relative significance of each forest in the country has not been studied yet. The study aimed to identify the highest biomass carbon-storing forest category for climate change mitigation in Ethiopia.

The author hypnotized that the highest biomass carbon stock might be recorded in church forests because church forests are preserved for centuries as sacred spaces [15, 20, 21]. In addition, they are dense in older and larger trees with better diversity and canopy structure of multiple vegetation layers, including mature trees, understory trees, shrubs, and ground cover [15, 22]. Church forests are usually protected from large-scale timber extraction with only a few human disturbances such as logging, grazing, and fuelwood collection [20]. They have also a relatively undisturbed environment due to legal protections and religious sanctions. In addition, the general population structure of many church forests has an inverted J-shape [23–26]. It indicates that there is a stable microclimate that can exhibit greater resilience to environmental stressors compared to other forests and favors the growth of tree species [15, 21]. Therefore, church forests might contribute to the highest biomass carbon stock compared to community and national park forests in Ethiopia.

The present study might be significant to magnify the contribution of church, community, and national park forests to carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation. The result could also indicate the highest biomass carbon-storing forest category for climate change mitigation among church, community, and national park forests in the country. It might be a base for further investigation in the country and worldwide. Additionally, it could give attention to governmental and nongovernmental institutions and enhance planners’ and decision-makers understanding and integration of these forest patches into more comprehensive conservation strategies and policy frameworks. The findings might provide a foundation for developing more targeted and effective climate change, forest management, land use, energy, and community engagement policies in Ethiopia. It can also benefit the country from the carbon exchange market and enable it to balance its economic development with environmental conservation and climate resilience.

2. Conceptual Framework

This conceptual framework outlines the theoretical and analytical approaches to understanding the variation of biomass carbon stock among church, community, and national park forest categories in Ethiopia. It illustrates their relationship and contribution to carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation. Additionally, the framework also highlights the data collection and analysis process (using ANOVA) as well as the policy implications for sustainable forest development, forest management, and carbon sequestration, which ultimately supports climate change mitigation (Figure 1).

Details are in the caption following the image — **Figure 1**
Open in figure viewer PowerPoint

Conceptual framework of the study.

2.1. Site Description

This study was carried out in Ethiopia. The country is located in the tropics of 3°24′–14°53′N and 32°42′–48°12′E. The geographical location is also 09005′N to 09000′N latitudes and 38045′E to 38042′E longitude (Figure 2). The maximum and minimum altitudes of the country were 4620 m and 126 m above sea level, respectively. According to the Central Statistical Agency (CSA), Ethiopia, is the third most populous country in Africa, followed by Egypt and Nigeria [27]. Ethiopia’s current population is 107,331,000. Among this, 76.8% of the population lives in rural areas [28]. The country has 11 regional states, one City Council (Addis Ababa), and one City Administration (Dire Dawa). The mean annual rainfall was approximately 2000 mm over the southwestern highlands and less than 300 mm over the southeastern and northeastern lowlands. The maximum and minimum temperatures of the country were 34.5°C and less than 0°C, respectively [29].

2.2. Data Collection and Analysis

In the present study, the remnant forest patches in Ethiopia were categorized into church, community, and national park forests based on ownership and management objectives of the forest (Table 1). Data were collected from the review of published and unpublished related scientific articles, books, and reports. Then, a total of 264 pieces of literature studies were searched from the Web of Scopus, Web of Science, and other indexed journals using keywords such as church forests, community forests, biomass carbon stock, national park forests, and climate change mitigation. However, only 70 published and 8 unpublished pieces of literature studies were selected for review. The selection procedures were taken based on their linkage and relevance to the topic, publication date (relatively recent publications), quality of the source, methodological rigor, clarity, and accessibility. Then, literature studies were properly reviewed and the biomass carbon stock data were manually extracted and recorded in Microsoft Excel. Finally, each data was converted into a similar unit of measurement (tons/ha) and ready for further analysis. The data collection was conducted from January to March 2024.

Table 1. Forest categories based on ownership and management objectives.

Forest type	Ownership	Management objective
Church forests	Religious institutions or churches	Preserving spiritual, cultural heritage, and sacred sites
Community forests	Local communities or community-based organizations	Focus on balancing conservation with local needs and livelihoods
National park forests	National or regional government agencies	Preserving biodiversity, protecting ecosystems, and providing scientific research opportunities

Finally, tables were prepared to summarize above- and belowground biomass carbon stock data of each forest category for further analysis (Table A1). Then, the data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel 2010 (data organization and management as well as basic and advanced calculations) and SPSS software version 20. The variation among church, community, and national park forest biomass carbon stock was tested using ANOVA.

2.3. Biomass Carbon Stock of Church Forests

Ethiopia Orthodox Tewahido Church (EOTC) is one of the oldest churches in the world and a founding member of the World Council of Church [20, 29]. The churches occurred in all agroecological zones of Ethiopia (Arid, lowland, midland, highland, and alpine zones) and survived for a long period. The main purpose of the church is worship, burials, meditation, and religious festivals [20]. The forests are also used as seed sources for raising seedlings in nurseries [30]. In addition, it contributes greatly to Ethiopian civilization in areas such as architecture, art, music, education, poetry, literature, law, theology, liturgy, philosophy, environment, and medicine [12, 26]. Churches are usually surrounded by valuable, unique, and secure forest habitats [20] because they have a long history of planting, protecting, and preserving forests [20, 26].

Due to this, church forests are still sanctuaries of many endemic, endangered, and economically important plant species [20, 22, 30, 31], including a higher density of national priority species for the conservation of Ethiopia’s Afromontane forest such as Juniperus procera, Cordia africana, Hagenia abyssinica, Prunus africana, Vepris dainellii, Olea africana, O. capensis sub spp. macrocarpa, and O. welwitschii [16, 21]. In addition, forests create a habitat network and genetic connectivity between sacred forests and other protected areas [32]. The general population structure of church forests has an inverted J-shape [23–26]. Therefore, church forests have a stable population structure [20] and might be a guarantee for future carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation.

The special feature of churches and church forests is that they have a win–win scenario. Based on this, churches obtain wood and nonwood products from forests, such as building materials, charcoal, wild edible fruits, and traditional medicine. Additionally, the forests also offered protection to church buildings from strong winds and storms, providing a shady environment for religious education, and giving grace and esteem to churches [20]. On the other hand, the forests also obtained protection from illegal cutting, logging, and other anthropogenic destructions due to legal protections, stone walls, and religious sanctions, norms, and taboos in the area. Most of the species in the church forest are native to the country, including J. procera, Podocarpus falcatus, Dracaena fragrans, and O. africana ssp. Cuspidate [22]. The species are important for ecosystem services, including shade, climate regulation, and spiritual values, and to rest their overstressed minds [20, 32]. These diversified and long-lived church forests can store a significant amount of carbon in their biomass to regulate the local climate. Church forests often characterized by their historical, cultural, and ecological significance possess several special features that contribute to their role in biomass carbon storage and climate change mitigation. Additionally, the continued preservation and careful management can also play a crucial role in global efforts to combat climate change.

Carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation are important concepts for global survival. They can reduce atmospheric CO₂ and store it in the ocean, vegetation, soil, and geological formations [33]. However, biophysical, environmental, and economic indicators provide strong evidence that natural resources in Ethiopia are deteriorating severely. In particular, deforestation and land degradation entail several challenges that have strongly affected the capacity of forests to provide ecosystem services [15]. These problems have become a widespread concern because they threaten global weather patterns, global warming, natural disasters, and biodiversity loss [34].

Currently, small remnant patches of intact natural forests are restricted to the EOTC [17] because church forests have been remarkably resilient in the church without a significant decrease in the size for the last dramatic natural forest change around the world [25]. These remnant church forests provide diverse ecosystem services for the community, such as carbon sequestration, climate regulation, biodiversity conservation, and esthetic value [33]. Therefore, church forests might play a considerable role in carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation.

According to the result, the mean biomass carbon stock of church forests was 151.80 tons/ha. The result could sink 557.09 metric tons of CO₂ equivalents in the atmosphere and contribute a carbon credit of 2499.09 USD (Table 2). Therefore, the mean biomass carbon stock of church forests was greater than tropical dry forests in Africa [35], sub-Saharan tropical dry forests [36], World Heritage Sites [37], Ethiopian high forests, woodland forests, and plantation forests. It was also comparable with the natural high forest biomass carbon stock of Ethiopia [38], and lower than the African tropical montane forest [39], lowland tropical forest in West Africa [40], Majang Forest Biosphere Reserve [41], and Yayu Forest-Coffee Biosphere Reserve [42]. Hence, church forests have played a considerable role in climate change mitigation in the country and worldwide.

Table 2. Mean area (ha), biomass carbon (tons/ha), CO₂ equivalence (tons/ha), and carbon credits (USD) of church, community, and national park forests in Ethiopia.

Forest name	Area	AGC	BGC	TBC	CO₂ eq.	Carbon credits
Church forest	909.05^a	122.20^a	29.60^a	151.80^a	557.09^a	2499.09^a
Community forest	30,482.69^ab	252.66^b	50.89^b	303.55^b	1231.12^b	5134.00^b
National park	127,064.50^c	133.54^ac	26.46^ac	160.00^ac	584.0^ac	2452.20^ac
Mean	49,627.88	181.35	37.83	219.18	853.65	3614.94
F	4.546	6.192	3.922	5.848	5.823	5.472
P	0.021	0.007	0.033	0.008	0.008	0.011

Note: Means with different letters are statistically significantly different at 0.05 level of significance. See details in Table A1.

2.4. Biomass Carbon Stock of Community Forests

Tropical forests are an important carbon source and sink with a huge role in mitigating climate change. They account for approximately 33% of terrestrial net primary production and store 25% of the global carbon [43]. They are playing a vital role in stabilizing the climate by storing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) within the vegetation biomass [43, 44]. Therefore, reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation opens an opportunity for the development of sustainable forest management and utilization in developing countries, including Ethiopia [45]. Among these, remnant community forests play a considerable role in forest management and conservation. They are survived through the effort of governmental, nongovernmental, and religious institutions, and local communities. In particular, local communities play a considerable role in community forest management and conservation [46].

Almost one-third of the world’s forests are now under community forest management [47]. A community forest is a forest area that is owned, managed, and utilized by local communities or groups of people living near the forest [46]. The local communities actively participate in decision-making processes regarding the use, protection, and benefits derived from the forest [47]. Forests provide important resources for local livelihoods in beekeeping, erosion reduction, and firewood collection. Additionally, community forests have attracted funds from international agencies and national governments because they are capable of turning degraded forests into a managed and productive resource while reducing the burden on the state and rural poverty [46]. The forests also play a considerable role in carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation in the country.

The mean biomass carbon stock, CO₂ equivalence, and carbon credit of community forests were 303.55, 1231.12, and 5134.00 tons/ha, respectively (Table 2). It indicates that community forests play a significant role in carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation in Ethiopia and worldwide. The mean biomass carbon stock in the present study was greater than tropical dry forests in Africa [35], sub-Saharan tropical dry forests [36], dry Afromontane forest in Awi Zone [48], lowland tropical forest in West Africa [40], African tropical montane forest, tropical dry forests in India [49], and forested areas in Africa [37]. It had also a comparable biomass carbon stock with a mature forest of Costa Rica [50]. However, the mean biomass carbon stock of community forests was lower than the Majang Forest Biosphere Reserve [41]. The variation in biomass carbon stock might be the difference in agroecology, soil condition, and allometric equations used as well as the forest management.

2.5. Biomass Carbon Stock of National Park Forests

Protected areas cover almost 13% of the Earth’s land surface. They are the cornerstones of national and international conservation strategies. These areas have a direct effort to protect wildlife species and maintain ecosystem health to ensure the long-term survival of various plant and animal species [51]. Protected areas might be national parks, nature reserves, and wildlife sanctuary forests [52]. According to Ethiopia Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA), there are 52 protected areas in Ethiopia. These include 20 national parks, 3 wildlife sanctuaries, 2 wildlife reserves, 17 controlled hunting areas, 7 open hunting areas, and 3 community conservation areas [53]. Basically, national parks are forested areas designated and protected by governmental agencies with a focus on biodiversity conservation, research, education, and recreation [54]. They are relatively large and undisturbed areas of land with strict regulations from human activities such as logging, hunting, and development to preserve their ecological integrity and cultural significance [55].

Therefore, national parks are considered a natural solution for maintaining woody species diversity and ecosystem services for carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation [54]. They are useful to minimize global warming to some extent in the country due to its considerable sink of atmospheric CO₂ from the atmosphere [19, 37, 52]. Hence, estimating the carbon sequestration and storage potential of protected areas, in general, and national parks in particular, could play a vital role in the carbon trading scheme and climate change mitigation in Ethiopia.

According to the result, the mean biomass carbon stock of Ethiopian National Park forests was 160 tons/ha. It has the potential to sink 584.01 metric tons of CO₂ equivalents in the atmosphere. In addition, the biomass carbon stock could also provide a carbon credit of 2452.20 USD dollars (Table 2). The result was greater than those of a similar study in W National Park and World Heritage Sites [37]. However, it was lower than Bukit Tigapuluh National Park [52]. This variation might be due to differences in agroecology and allometric equations used [34], as well as the park management system.

2.6. Comparative Analysis of Biomass Carbon Stock Among Forest Categories

According to the result, the mean biomass carbon stock of church, community, and national park forests was 151.8, 303.55, and 160 tons/ha respectively. It indicates that there was a biomass carbon stock variation among each forest category. The variation was statistically significant at a 95% confidence interval. The highest and lowest biomass carbon stock was recorded in community and church forests respectively (Table 2) because community forests establish their own governance structures, such as committees or councils, which manage resources, enforce rules, and resolve issues. They focus on ensuring both ecological health and social livelihoods through enrichment planting, agroforestry, and selective logging. Additionally, forests maintain cultural and spiritual value for local communities. The current plantation campaign with regular spacing might play a significant role in using the space efficiently [14]. It might play a considerable contribution to carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation in the country.

The total mean biomass carbon stock of church, community, and national park forests was 219.18 tons/ha in Ethiopia. It could sink 853.65 metric tons of CO₂ equivalents in the atmosphere and contribute a carbon credit of 3614.94 USD (Table 2), assuming that the price of carbon credits per ton is about 15.41 USD [43]. The mean biomass carbon stock was greater than tropical dry forests of Africa [35], sub-Saharan tropical dry forests [36], African tropical montane forests [39], the mean natural high forest carbon stock of Ethiopia [38], and forested areas in Africa [37]. It had also a comparable biomass carbon stock with lowland tropical forests of West Africa [40]. However, it was lower than Majang Forest Biosphere Reserve [41], and Yayu Forest-Coffee Biosphere Reserve [42]. The reason might be the differences in climate, vegetation types, land use, soil conditions, topography, and human activities.

2.7. Climate Change Mitigation

Climate change refers to long-term fluctuations of temperature, precipitation, wind, and other elements of the Earth’s climate system. It is a change in climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global and/or regional atmosphere [56]. On the other hand, climate change mitigation is reducing greenhouse gases from the atmosphere through various mechanisms such as afforestation, reforestation, enrichment planting, and sustainable forest utilization. As the least industrialized continent, Africa represents only 3.6 percent of GHG emissions mainly through deforestation, forest degradation, and agricultural expansion [18]. However, the continent is the most vulnerable to the effects of climate change due to increased temperature and water scarcity [9]. Deforestation accounts for more than one-sixth of greenhouse gas emissions [12].

Hence, environmental problems are a widespread concern because they threaten global weather patterns, global warming, natural disasters, and the loss of forests [34]. According to the IPCC [57] report, the Earth’s surface has been successively warmer than any preceding decade since 1850. The period from 1983 to 2012 was likely the warmest 30-year period of the last 800 years in the Northern Hemisphere [57]. This indicates that most of the global average temperatures increase when anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations increase [58].

Therefore, forest resource management has become one of the most important agendas in climate negotiations, which has resulted in reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation [45] because it has a significant contribution to climate change mitigation by absorbing carbon emissions from the atmosphere [33] and storing it in the form of above- and belowground biomass and soil. Forests can accumulate more than 80% of all terrestrial aboveground carbon and more than 70% of all soil organic carbon [18]. Among these, church, community, and national park forests have played a role in reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in Ethiopia [14].

3. Conclusion

According to the result, church, community, and national park forests have a considerable contribution to carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation in the country as well as worldwide. They are also important to foreign currency exchange for the country. These remnant forests survived through legal protection and religious sanction. The mean biomass carbon stock of community forests was statistically higher than church and national park forests. The highest biomass carbon stock and the lowest biomass carbon stock were recorded in community and church forests, respectively. Therefore, community-based forest management is much more effective in carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation in Ethiopia. In addition, they might provide the best lessons in forest management and climate change mitigation for governmental and nongovernmental institutions as well as researchers in the area.

3.1. Recommendation

Based on the result, the author stated the following recommendations:

•
Enrichment planting should be encouraged in all forest categories.
•
Integration of indigenous knowledge and modern conservation approaches should be encouraged in the forest management planning and implementation process.
•
The local communities should be aware of the contribution of forests to carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation.
•
Provide alternative sources of energy for the community to reduce deforestation and forest degradation.
•
A long-term funding is important for developing countries to reduce deforestation and forest degradation.
•
Relatively few studies have been conducted on churches and national park forests. Therefore, there should be further investigation about their role in carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflicts of interest.

Funding

The author declares that no funding was received.

Acknowledgments

The author is thankful to Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute, Bahir Dar Biodiversity Center staff members, and Dagm Fikir for their advice and comments on this review. The author is also very grateful to Mr. Agumassie Genet for his support in site map preparation.

Appendix A

Table A1. List of church forests, community forests, and national parks with their mean area, biomass carbon, CO₂ equivalence, and carbon credits (USD) in Ethiopia.

No	Study areas	Forest type	Area (ha)	AGC (tons)	BGC (tons)	Mean TBC	CO₂ eq. (ton)	Carbon credits (USD $)	Source
1	Selected church forests in Dangila Woreda	A	3.28	39.59	9.90	49.49	181.63	762.64	[26]
2	Sekele–Mariam church forest	A	532.42	37.54	9.76	47.30	173.59	728.89	[59]
3	Zequala Monastery Forest	A	197	237.20	47.60	284.80	1045.22	4388.77	[60]
4	Selected church forests in Northern Ethiopia	A	19.80	24.73	6.41	31.14	114.29	1759.28	[61]
5	Asabot Monastery Dry Afromontane Forest	A	6512	266.70	88.90	355.60	1305.05	5479.80	[7]
6	Selected church forests in northwestern A.A.	A	3.72	129.86	25.97	155.83	571.91	2401.34	[62]
7	Selected church forests around A.A. city	A	0.62	130.21	26.03	156.24	573.38	2407.59	[34]
8	Selected church forests in Ethiopia	A	3.52	111.73	22.24	133.97	491.66	2064.44	[63]
9	Tara Gedam Forest	B	475	306.37	61.52	367.89	1350.16	5669.18	[64]
10	Egdu Dry Afromontane Forest	B	486	278.08	55.62	333.70	2605.66	10,940.95	[65]
11	Ades Forest	B	618	259.17	52.20	311.37	1142.73	4798.21	[45]
12	Yegof Mountain Forest	B	327.30	454.50	90.90	545.40	2035.02	8544.85	[66]
13	Damota Natural Vegetation	B	684.73	195.66	38.01	233.67	777.97	3266.61	[67]
14	Oxytenanthera Abyssinica Forests	B	104,500	140.68	35.15	175.83	716.46	3008.34	[68]
15	Sirso Natural Forest	B	3501	320.36	64.07	384.44	1410.89	5924.22	[69]
16	Gerba-Dima Forest	B	106,287.30	243.85	45.97	289.82	1063.46	4465.36	[70]
17	Gesha-Sayilem Forest	B	85,660	164.50	32.90	197.40	724.46	3041.93	[71]
18	Gedo Forest	B	10,000	2810	56.10	337.10	1237.16	5194.71	[72]
19	Gara Gola Natural Vegetation	B	53,100	246.70	50	296.70	1088.19	4145.14	[73]
20	Kubayo Forest	B	153	141.06	28.21	169.27	621.22	2608.45	[74]
21	Godebe National Park	C	18,691	338.89	67.78	406.68	1492.52	6266.94	[5]
22	Gambella National Park	C	457,500	192.18	15.37	207.54	761.67	3198.19	[75]
23	Semien Mountains National Park	C	41,200	57.83	13.88	71.71	263.18	1105.05	[14]
24	Alitash National Park	C	266,600	27.70	6.93	34.63	101.66	426.86	[76]
25	Awash National Park	C	59,800	49.38	9.88	59.26	217.48	913.2	[18]
26	Chebera-Churchura National Parks	C	127,850	181.20	47.06	228.26	837.71	3517.49	[77]
27	Borena-Sayint Park	C	4375	108.80	28.29	137.09	503.12	2112.56	[77]
28	Abijatta-Shalla Lake National Park	C	40,500	112.30	22.50	134.80	494.72	2077.27	[19]
	Sum		1,389,581	5077.77	1059.15	6136.93	23,902.17	101,218.3
	Mean		49,627.88	181.35	37.83	219.18	853.65	3614.94
	F		4.546	6.192	3.922	5.848	5.823	5.472
	P		0.021	0.007	0.033	0.008	0.008	0.011

Note: Since CO₂ eq. = TBC × 3.67 [78], the price of carbon credits per ton is about 15.41 USD [43]. A = church forest, B = community forest, and C = national park forest.
Abbreviations: AGC = aboveground carbon, BGC = belowground carbon, and TBC = total biomass carbon.

Open Research

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Comparative Analysis of Church, Community, and National Park Forests in Biomass Carbon Stock and Climate Change Mitigation in Ethiopia: A Review

Abstract

1. Introduction