The increasing reliance on the internet has intensified concerns about internet addiction, especially among adolescents. Previous studies have associated adolescent internet addiction with detrimental psychological conditions and deteriorating social bonds. Nonetheless, a comprehensive theoretical framework for understanding the development of adolescent internet addiction remains elusive, impeding the advancement of research focused on creating effective educational and intervention strategies. This study undertakes a systematic review of existing theories and models related to adolescent internet addiction, offering an integrated theoretical framework that aims to elucidate the underlying causes and mechanisms. Our proposed framework seeks to enhance the conceptual foundation for future research, thereby facilitating the development of targeted interventions.

1. Introduction

In recent years, internet usage has become ingrained in individuals’ daily routines. While the internet offers considerable convenience, it has also given rise to various issues, notably, internet addiction. Various terms, such as internet addiction disorder (IAD), pathological internet use (PIU), internet addiction, or internet dependency, are employed to characterize excessive internet use. Young [1] conceptualized PIU as an impulse control disorder devoid of narcotic effects, drawing parallels with pathological gambling. Griffiths [2] proposed that internet addiction, akin to computer addiction, constitutes a subtype of behavioral addiction, resembling compulsive gambling. Aligning with the World Health Organization’s definition of “addiction,” this study posits internet addiction as a “chronic or periodic state of fascination induced by repeated internet use, accompanied by an irresistible desire for continued use.” It involves the development of tension, tolerance, as well as restraint and withdrawal phenomena, reflecting psychological and physiological dependence on the pleasure derived from internet use.

Based on research conducted by the University of Michigan, approximately 210 million individuals globally are affected by internet addiction [3]. In terms of U.S. statistics, California State University reports that around 10%, or 33.19 million Americans, are addicted to the internet compared to the average person. Notably, among young social media users aged 18–22, they constitute 40% of all Americans grappling with internet addiction [4]. The impact of internet addiction on adolescents has emerged as a growing concern.

In addressing the escalating concern related to adolescent internet addiction, acquiring a comprehensive understanding of its underlying causes is imperative. Although the academic community has proposed theoretical frameworks to elucidate this phenomenon, a comprehensive framework applicable to empirical research is currently lacking. Some reviews briefly touch upon internet addiction factors [5], while other studies adopt general theoretical perspectives, such as neurobiological and cognitive viewpoints, without specifying particular theories or models [6]. Several articles summarize existing theoretical frameworks, scrutinize their limitations, and propose opportunities for theoretical refinement [7]. However, these studies rarely explored how empirical research on adolescent internet addiction applies these theoretical frameworks or outlines their specific structures. Despite the escalating severity of adolescent internet addiction and the continuous emergence of empirical research, there remains a dearth of up-to-date reviews and comprehensive summaries of pertinent theoretical frameworks.

This study synthesizes key theories and models in current internet addiction research, categorizing them at both systemic and individual levels. It proposes a comprehensive theoretical integration and application framework that considers the environmental impact on individuals, biopsychological factors, personality traits, mental disorders, motivational perspectives on needs and incentives, and behavioral perspectives on coping styles and decision-making. The aim is to comprehensively understand the causes and potential mechanisms of adolescent internet addiction, identify the differences between theories, and provide new theoretical perspectives and references for future research and development in this field.

2. Method

Adhering to Popper’s [8] view that all statements and observations are theoretically grounded in our conscious and unconscious world models, this study utilizes an interpretative phenomenological framework [9] to examine how authors of recent peer-reviewed publications accurately attribute causes to the phenomenon of “internet addiction.” Opposite to systematic reviews aimed at determining “validity” through quantitative methods to assess publication quality, narrative reviews develop concepts integrating these ideas and theories. The outcome of the synthesis is a theoretical framework based on the analysis of the reviewed data [10]. The strength of narrative reviews lies in their capacity to critically analyze a complex body of literature and explore comprehensive, integrative topics [11]. Narrative reviews are enhanced by systematic review techniques such as “reporting transparency” [12]. In this study, the author conducted both collection and analysis of the data, after conceptualizing narrative review as a reflexive practice, where the identification of themes and interpretation of findings were influenced by the researcher’s training and practical experience. Reflexivity requires ongoing internal dialog and critical self-evaluation [13, 14]. The author adheres to the discipline of “social work,” influenced by previous training and practice with adolescents suffering from internet addiction. The author’s practical experience and theoretical commitment are evident in their peer-reviewed publications.

The present theoretical literature review process was conducted in four phases: (1) literature search, (2) identification of publication categories, (3) identification of themes within the identified categories [15], and (4) identification of similarities and differences among the themes within each identified category. An electronic database search was conducted to retrieve peer-reviewed journal articles published with a focus on theories that could explain the phenomenon of adolescent internet addiction and empirical studies that provided theoretical support [16]. We searched databases most likely to contain IAD research, including Communication and Mass Media Complete, Library and Information Science Source, Web of Science, and PsycINFO, summarizing relevant theories and seeking empirical articles for theoretical validation and support. Search keywords included internet, social media, social network, social networking sites (SNSs), and Facebook, as well as addiction-related terms such as addiction, addictive use, problematic use, and dependency. The search results were screened based on inclusion criteria for publications, which included (1) peer-reviewed English journal articles, (2) content related to the development and factors associated with “adolescent internet addiction,” and (3) empirical studies that explicitly applied existing theories or specific models to guide research design predicting IAD. Government reports, counseling manuals, and policy documents were excluded from the study.

The initial search returned 1028 unique articles, the final sample included 78 articles, and we summarized 24 theories/models. The exclusion criteria were as follows: (1) studies that only employed a theoretical framework for measuring IAD, (2) studies that did not include any key concepts from the theories/models they referenced, and (3) studies where IAD was used solely as an independent variable to predict other concepts. After reading the retrieved articles, there were 55 studies that directly utilized key concepts/constructs from specific theories/models to guide their research, and 23 articles that, although not directly borrowing from theories, emphasized or inductively analyzed the causes of adolescent internet addiction, providing empirical support for relevant theories (see Table 1). Subsequent thematic analysis [91] revealed both explicit and implicit theoretical perspectives in the publications. Implicit adoption of a theory was defined as the incorporation of the main elements of the theory without explicitly referencing the theory itself. The reflexivity underpinning thematic analysis relies on a postpositivist ontological (philosophy of science) framework [8], which posits that all observations and statements are theoretical because no statement can be nontheoretical (omnisciently/defensively deny any former knowledge in the literature). In fact, “atheoretical” becomes a theory that describes either the essence or the quest for “truth.” This study contends that the phenomenon of internet addiction in adolescent protection practice inevitably relies on theories explaining human biological, psychological, and social factors, or theories explaining the causes of addictive behaviors. Thus, the identification of themes (hereafter defined as “theories”) depends on relevant literature, and the author’s reflexivity, explained in peer-reviewed publications by researchers evaluating the effectiveness of practice. For data analysis, we extracted relevant theories, applied theories/models, and theoretical factors predicting internet addiction behaviors [14]. Next, we analyzed the similarities of the basic characteristics of the identified theories/models and grouped similar foci into different categories. When a theory/model contained elements fitting multiple categories, we placed it into a single category based on its main features or core assumptions, highlighting the primary components of different theoretical perspectives in this study. We referred to the original publications of these theories/models as needed and conducted numerous group meetings to discuss the designated categories and the synthesis of these theories/models. The “Discussion” section attempts to link specific terms in the publications with different theoretical perspectives to form a comprehensive theoretical framework explaining adolescent internet addiction behaviors and provides content-based evaluation for interventions in adolescent internet addiction practices.

Table 1. Research methodology adopted in the publications.

Publications	Systematic review	Literature review	Qualitative	Quantitative	Explicit theory
[17]				√
[18]				√
[19]				√	√
[20]				√	√
[21]	√			√	√
[22]				√	√
[23]				√	√
[24]			√
[25]				√	√
[5]		√
[26]			√
[27]		√	√		√
[28]				√	√
[29]				√	√
[30]		√
[31, 32]				√	√
[33]				√
[34]				√	√
[35]				√	√
[36]				√	√
[37]	√			√
[38]				√	√
[39]				√	√
[40]				√	√
[41, 42]				√	√
[2]			√
[43]	√			√
[44]				√	√
[45]				√	√
[46]				√	√
[47]				√	√
[48]		√	√	√	√
[49]				√	√
[50]				√	√
[51]				√	√
[52]				√	√
[53]				√
[54]				√	√
[55]				√
[56]			√		√
[57]		√	√		√
[58]	√			√
[59]				√	√
[33]				√
[60]				√
[61]				√	√
[62]				√	√
[63]				√	√
[64]	√			√	√
[65]				√	√
[66]				√	√
[67]				√	√
[68]				√	√
[69]				√	√
[70]				√	√
[71]				√	√
[72]				√	√
[73]				√	√
[54]				√	√
[74]				√	√
[75]				√	√
[59]				√
[60]				√
[76]				√
[77]				√	√
[78]				√
[79]				√	√
[80]				√	√
[81]				√	√
[82]				√
[83]				√	√
[84]				√
[85]				√	√
[1]				√	√
[86]				√
[87]				√	√
[88]				√	√

3. Result: Theories and Models That Guide IAD

3.1. Systemic Level: Influence of the Environment on Individuals

3.1.1. Social–Ecological Systems Theory

The social–ecological systems theory presents a comprehensive framework that contextualizes individual growth and development within an open system, underscoring the inseparable connection between individual behavior and environmental factors [89]. The theory focuses on the continual interaction between individual online addictive behaviors and the systemic environment. Adolescent internet addiction may stem from various influences within family, neighborhood, school, and community environments. For example, parental divorce, inadequate parent–child communication, low family organizational capacity, and insufficient family cohesion can impel adolescents to seek emotional support and escape real-life stress in the online world [28, 82]. Excessive academic pressure and tense teacher–student relationships may also drive adolescents to engage in online activities [61, 84]. According to Social control theory [90], strong bonds with significant others may discourage individuals from affiliating with deviant peers (because of the obligation to fulfill the expectations of significant others and the fear of compromising established good relationships), which in turn decrease the risk of deviant behaviors as a result of reduced exposure. Interactions between systems also impact adolescent internet addiction. Good family communication, peer support in school, and rich cultural activities in the community can alleviate life and academic pressures on adolescents, preventing addiction to social media and online games, thereby reducing the risk of internet addiction [37, 61, 73, 82, 85]. Moreover, a lack of attention and management of internet addiction issues in the social policy environment, coupled with a competitive and utilitarian cultural background, can inadvertently create societal pressure. When adolescents experience a lack of social support, they may increasingly turn to the internet to relieve stress, ease anxiety, and boost their self-esteem [29, 69, 80].

3.1.2. Social Identity Theory

According to social identity theory, individuals, upon recognizing their affiliation with a specific social group and discerning the emotional and value significance linked to group membership, tend to cultivate an in-group preference through social categorization. This involves aligning with the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects inherent to the identified group. Consequently, individuals are predisposed to conform to the subjective norms of the group, internalizing the group’s values as their own beliefs, thereby facilitating behaviors that contribute to internet addiction [58, 63]. Structural social capital, denoting people’s maintained social relationships online, and cognitive social capital, pertaining to perceived and expected social support, can serve as motivating factors for frequent social media use [75, 80]. During the critical phases of identity construction and self-identity, adolescents discover virtual social spaces on online platforms. Engaging in interactions and constructing their image, adolescents seek approval and evaluate their self-worth, often affiliating with various social groups or interest circles that share similar interests and experiences [58, 69, 80]. Should adolescents spend extended periods within a social group that extensively utilizes the internet, as the group can assuage feelings of loneliness and social distrust, particularly in the face of real-life challenges and setbacks? The sense of belonging to the group, coupled with sustained online social relationships, aids adolescents in forming social identity, obtaining emotional support, and finding satisfaction. This, however, may result in an excessive reliance on and immersion in the internet [37, 49, 58].

3.2. Individual Level: The Influence of Individuals on IAD

In addition to examining the influence of the systemic environment on adolescents, it is crucial to delve into the individual perspective to comprehend the origins of adolescent internet addiction. At the individual level, diverse theoretical explanations exist, encompassing pathological interpretations grounded in individual traits and explanations that assess individuals’ adaptability and maladaptation to external factors. Although these theoretical frameworks have primarily evolved autonomously, the manifestation of adolescent internet addiction behaviors is frequently attributed not to a singular factor but to a combination of functional and dysfunctional elements [16].

3.2.1. Biopsychology, Personality, and Mental Disorders

Numerous studies have delved into the determinants of internet addiction behavior, examining it through the perspectives of biopsychology, personality traits, and mental disorders [5, 20, 29].

3.2.1.1. Biopsychology

Internet addiction behavior correlates with neurobiological activity and alterations in brain structure. The incentive-sensitization theory postulates that internet use exposes the brain to highly pleasurable stimuli, instigating neurochemical reactions in excessive activation of the sympathetic nervous system and elevated blood pressure. Frequent exposure to such stimuli reinforces these chemical reactions in the brain, potentially causing certain reward systems to become hypersensitive, ultimately fostering internet addiction behavior [81, 83]. The dual systems theory posits that internet addiction may divert attention, inducing “laziness” in the cognitive control system of adolescents and consequently weakening their self-control abilities [20, 50]. The immediate stimuli and feedback provided by the internet may activate the social–emotional system, prompting adolescents to prefer immediate gratification and short-term rewards, thus diminishing self-control abilities and amplifying internet addiction behavior [36, 92]. Throughout this process, individual susceptibility to stress may lead to variations, influencing diverse reactions to external pressures. Disparities in brain neural excitation levels may result, causing variations in individual’s psychological and emotional responses and internet addiction behavior [21, 62].

3.2.1.2. Personality

Gender, genetic or innate factors, chemical imbalances in the brain, and disruptions in neurotransmitters (such as chromosomes and hormones), along with adverse childhood experiences, can all contribute to why some individuals are predisposed to internet addiction [24, 53, 57]. Furthermore, personality traits, including impulsivity, low self-esteem, self-efficacy, intense emotional needs, peculiar psychological symptoms, and emotional disorders, may exert a more substantial influence on individual’s internet addiction than the social environment [37, 60]. The attachment theory posits that individuals develop different attachment tendencies based on their early interactions with primary caregivers. These early attachment experiences can continue to influence how people perceive and manage social relationships throughout their lives [93]. A common method to describe a person’s attachment follows the two-dimensional model of attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance [94]. The internet can be utilized by individuals with anxious attachments to maintain continuous connections with friends and seek attention and reassurance online. Recent studies have consistently found a positive correlation between levels of attachment anxiety and internet addiction [38]. Focused attachment styles and a need for recognition (both characterized by high anxiety) also positively contribute to internet addiction [34, 44]. Avoidant individuals with high attachment anxiety (e.g., fearful attachment style) may be highly engaged with social media to maintain a safe distance from others while still staying connected [59].

3.2.1.3. Mental Disorders

Conditions such as depression, social anxiety disorder, social phobia, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and schizophrenia are closely associated with the occurrence of internet addiction behavior [5, 17, 86].

3.2.2. Motivational Perspective: Needs and Incentives

3.2.2.1. Psychoanalytic Theory

According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the genesis of internet addiction can be traced back to the oral stage, wherein infants derive psychological satisfaction from breastfeeding, retaining memories and longing for the comforting feelings associated with warmth, care, and safety, representing maternal love. Although these emotions may seem to dissipate post the oral stage, they persist in the subconscious. Fueled by the interactivity and virtual reality features of the internet, individuals may resort to online activities for emotional release when confronted with developmental setbacks, such as academic failure, social anxiety, or a sense of lacking love [18, 33, 86]. Consequently, from the psychoanalytic perspective, internet addiction behavior is construed as a psychological defense mechanism, wherein individuals employ the internet as a tool to evade problems, fulfill desires, and alleviate conflicts.

3.2.2.2. Humanistic Theory

The humanistic theory, exemplified by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, furnishes an analysis of the connection between individual needs and behavior. Sexual needs, encompassed within physiological needs, intertwine with internet use, offering multimedia stimuli and serving as a platform for the new generation seeking sexual arousal. Internet activities associated with sexual needs, such as accessing adult content websites and adult chat rooms, are deemed pivotal factors contributing to internet addiction [43]. In the context of modern society’s evolution, the frequency of interaction in traditional community neighborhoods diminishes, divorce rates escalate, and interpersonal relationships gradually estrange. These shifts elevate the demand for social support, prompting individuals to turn to the internet as a medium for social interaction to fulfill their emotional needs. The excessive engagement with highly socially interactive online services, including chat rooms, news, and forums, stands out as a noteworthy factor contributing significantly to internet addiction [95]. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory and basic psychological need theory, self-esteem needs constitute one of individuals’ fundamental requirements. Online gaming stands out as a predominant form of adolescent internet addiction, serving as a platform for adolescents to bolster their self-esteem [77]. Within these games, adolescents can derive satisfaction from self-realization and self-achievement, indicative of a high-level self-esteem. Furthermore, the role-playing and social interactions embedded in online games cater to adolescents’ craving for recognition and acceptance from others, addressing their low-level self-esteem. Suler [96] posits that the immediacy feature in online role-playing games is a pivotal factor contributing to adolescent internet addiction. Within games, players receive real-time feedback and rewards, fostering a sense of self-achievement and heightened self-esteem, consequently escalating online time and ultimately fostering internet addiction. Moreover, Suler [96] suggests that within online contexts, individuals have the opportunity for profound self-understanding, reflection, and exploration. Internet users can attain a deeper understanding of their inner selves, attitudes, and personalities in the online environment, fulfilling dreams of self-actualization.

3.2.2.3. Motivation Theory

The motivation theory is extensively utilized to investigate users’ behavior in using the internet. Extrinsic and intrinsic factors affect the motivation to use the internet. Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity because it is perceived as instrumental in achieving valued outcomes. Intrinsic motivation is defined as the fact of performing an activity resulting from an interest in the action itself such as enjoyment. In terms of internet use, perceived enjoyment is a key intrinsic motivator in increasing social media addiction [31]. Perceived enjoyment [66] and social interaction [45] as individuals’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are explored for individuals’ social media usage [52].

3.2.2.4. Self-Determination Theory

The self-determination theory centers on individuals’ intrinsic growth tendencies and internal psychological needs, suggesting that human behavior is influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations [97]. The satisfaction of three fundamental psychological needs, autonomy, competence, and relatedness, is crucial [98]. Individuals driven by specific motivations and psychological needs may consequently engage in excessive internet use. A survey conducted in Germany discovered that seeking gratification from social media usage could lead to social media addiction [65]. The lack of autonomy among adolescents in real-life settings may compel them to seek autonomy experiences online, leading to a heightened motivation for information acquisition, self-presentation, and escapism on digital platforms [18, 29]. In addition, the absence of relatedness among real-life adolescents may drive them to utilize social media for self-presentation and forming new connections, fulfilling basic psychological needs [46, 68, 77].

3.2.2.5. Emotion Regulation Theory

The emotion regulation theory posits that individuals influence their psychology and behavior by regulating emotions. Emotion regulation is a process that assists individuals in adapting to various emotional states and maintaining psychological and physiological balance [99]. This theory explains the occurrence of internet addiction behavior in terms of the impact of stress, depression, and emotional discomfort. During adolescence, individuals’ emotional regulation abilities are not yet fully mature, rendering them more susceptible to internet addiction as a means of escaping negative emotions, such as loneliness, anxiety, and depression [33, 48]. Online games and social media, among other applications, offer adolescents an avenue to escape reality, obtain positive emotional experiences, and access social support [17, 51]; however, excessive reliance on the internet for emotion regulation may lead to dependence and eventual internet addiction [48, 74].

3.2.2.6. Uses and Gratifications Theory (UGT)

The UGT posits that individuals consciously select media to fulfill specific needs, such as enhancing knowledge, relaxation, social interaction, social companionship, attention diversion, or escapism [100]. In the process of utilizing social media, individuals demonstrate strong subjectivity, defining their own needs and goals. Active participation in the communication process influences the satisfaction derived from media use [101]. Internet use can satisfy individuals’ content, process, and social needs [102]. Content satisfaction comes from seeking specific information or resources, process satisfaction arises from intentional or casual internet browsing, and social satisfaction is gained through building and strengthening social relationships online. In addition, internet use caters to various individual purposes and needs. Ferris and Sommer tested the relationship between individual life satisfaction, interpersonal activities, and internet addiction in UGT theory, and the results supported UGT theory. Proved social connection, psychological well-being enhancement, entertainment, self-presentation, and skill improvement are associated with internet addiction [40]. Similarly, another study showed that needs such as self-esteem, social satisfaction, and social connectivity all increase Facebook use [39].

3.2.3. Behavioral Perspective: Coping Style and Decision-Making

3.2.3.1. Behaviorism Theory

The behaviorism theory asserts that internet addiction stems from learned behavior, where individuals develop a reliance on online activities influenced by external stimuli such as rewards, punishments, and reinforcements. Within behaviorism’s framework of classical conditioning, adolescents may establish conditioned reflexes linked to internet activities; for instance, finding pleasure in receiving rewards in online games, which can lead to excessive reliance on those games. The operant conditioning theory posits that rewarded behavior is more likely to recur, while punished behavior diminishes [103]. Adolescents actively pursue rewarding experiences online, such as gaining social approval through likes and comments on social media. These rewarding stimuli activate the brain’s reward system, particularly the dopamine system, reinforcing internet addiction behavior. The incentive-sensitization theory suggests that individuals’ sensitivity to rewards influences their engagement in rewarding behaviors [81, 83]. For instance, some adolescents may exhibit heightened sensitivity to virtual rewards and achievements in online games, rendering them more prone to gaming addiction [35, 57, 84].

3.2.3.2. Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory posits that adolescents may adopt imitative behaviors towards excessive internet use by observing family members, peers, or online idols during their developmental stages [104]. For example, if a teenager observes their idol frequently posting photos and videos on social media, garnering numerous likes and comments, they may emulate this behavior and gradually develop internet addiction [54]. Moreover, internet addiction behavior may stem from individuals’ observation and reinforcement mechanisms, as individuals often experience immediate pleasure and gratification through activities such as gaming and browsing social media, leading to positive reinforcement effects that could contribute to excessive internet use and addiction [35]. In addition, this theory suggests that human behavior is influenced by the environment and stimuli. If adolescents lack meaningful activities or stimuli in real life, they may resort to entertainment and alternative online activities to fulfill their needs, thereby excessively relying on the internet and developing addiction [27].

3.2.3.3. Social Cognitive Theory

The social cognitive theory [105] delves into the cognitive processes of individuals concerning internet addiction. This encompasses facets such as self-efficacy, cognitive distortions, and decision-making, accentuating the interactive influences among behavior, environment, and personal determinants. Research has established a correlation between low self-efficacy and internet addiction, as adolescents may lack confidence in controlling their internet usage [88]. In addition, cognitive distortions can contribute to internet addiction, such as overestimating the benefits of online activities or underestimating their negative impacts. Concerning decision-making, if adolescents harbor positive outcome expectations for internet use, it may escalate their internet usage and potentially exacerbate addictive behavior [19]. Within the framework of social cognitive theory, internet use is conceptualized as a social cognitive process. Negative outcome expectations and high self-efficacy can diminish the likelihood of adolescent internet addiction [87], while positive outcome expectations, self-disparagement, and self-sightedness are positively correlated with internet addiction [19, 72].

3.2.3.4. Self-Control Theory

The self-control theory emphasizes the ability to manage one’s thoughts and behaviors in response to external environments. Self-control can be divided into two aspects: restraint and impulsivity [106]. Therefore, when an individual’s self-control is challenged by external demands, he must confront the demands prompting them to act in a certain way and the internal forces motivating him to satisfy his desire [36]. According to the self-control theory, some students are more restrained and less impulsive than others, so they are more willing to sacrifice short-term entertainment to commit to long-term goals [30, 54]. In simple terms, a student with poor retention is more likely to focus on immediate feedback. For instance, a student with low self-control is less inclined to study for exams and more prone to watching videos online. Conversely, a student with high self-control is more likely to prioritize long-term benefits, such as exam preparation, and limit internet use [54].

3.2.3.5. Self-Escape Theory

The self-escape theory posits that individuals, when sensing a dissonance between their current state and their expectations, may seek to escape from self-awareness to alleviate negative emotions and reactions [107, 108], and the internet serves as a conduit for adolescents to achieve this escape. A study revealed that the students feeling undervalued at school turned to excessive use of Facebook and other online social media platforms to create virtual identities, compensating for the discrepancy between their actual situations and self-expectations, thereby further immersing themselves in the online realm [67].

3.2.3.6. Planned Behavior Theory

The planned behavior theory establishes a link between an individual’s beliefs and behavior, where the behavioral intention is shaped by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, acting as a determinant of human social behavior [109]. The internet offers individuals opportunities for self-presentation and social supervision, enabling immediate and sustained connections with others and contributing to emotional regulation and enjoyment. The perceived confidence and expectations regarding internet use also impact an individual’s behavior in using the internet. A study conducted in Singapore revealed that adolescents demonstrated a higher tendency toward social media addiction compared to adults, and there were significant differences in the relationship between attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and social media addiction. Furthermore, self-identity was found to be significantly correlated with the occurrence of internet addiction behaviors [23].

3.3. Specific Theories/Models of Internet Addiction

3.3.1. Young’s ACE Model

The ACE model underscores the intrinsic characteristics of the internet, delineating the causes of internet addiction through anonymity, convenience, and escapism. Anonymity involves individuals interacting on the internet with roles and identities of their choice [1]. This virtual identity acts as a protective mechanism, enabling individuals to evade real-life responsibilities and consequences, inducing relaxation and pleasure that captivate many in the virtual world. Convenience highlights the substantial advantages offered by the internet, allowing individuals to fulfill tasks such as shopping, socializing, and entertainment from the comfort of their homes. Consequently, many invest significant time and energy in online activities, developing an addiction to diverse online experiences. Escapism refers to individuals finding solace and a sense of belonging on the internet when confronted with setbacks or unpleasant real-life situations. For example, individuals criticized or isolated at school may seek recognition and appreciation in online gaming, resulting in an addiction to this virtual realm [17]. However, the ACE model has notable limitations as it exclusively emphasizes the internet’s inherent characteristics, neglecting individual traits and environmental factors [5, 47, 55]. Since the three features of the internet apply universally, a strict analysis based solely on the ACE model implies that every internet user could potentially become addicted. In reality, the impact of the internet varies among individuals, and not all users develop an addiction. The formation of adolescent internet addiction is a complex issue that cannot be simplistically explained by the ACE model. The ACE model seems more like an external influencing factor model for the occurrence of adolescent internet addiction behavior. When exploring the reasons for adolescent internet addiction, a comprehensive consideration of individual traits, environmental factors, and the inherent characteristics of the internet is necessary.

3.3.2. Grohol’s Stage Model

Grohol [41] proposed that internet addiction is a transient and evolving behavior, signifying a phase in the progression from internet novices to regular users. The initial stage is the infatuation stage, where individuals may display addictive behavior, initially captivated or perplexed by the internet, even if they are seasoned users. Despite addictive behaviors in this stage, individuals are anticipated to advance through the subsequent phases: returning to normal life and achieving a balance between online and real-world activities. The second stage, the awakening stage, involves individuals actively striving to curtail excessive internet use and return to a regular life. The third stage, the balance stage, signifies individuals attaining equilibrium between online and other life activities, effectively utilizing the internet for personal and educational purposes. Grohol asserts that all internet users will eventually reach the third stage; the duration varies, with some swiftly progressing through the initial stages, while others may take longer. Those labeled as “internet addicts” are individuals spending an extended period in the first stage, requiring assistance to achieve a balanced internet use [41, 42, 79]. While Grohol’s stage model illuminates the process of internet addiction, acknowledging that many people undergo temporary addiction and can naturally overcome it, the model offers only a perspective on the stages of internet addiction without delving into its underlying mechanisms. According to this model, addicts need only pass through the infatuation stage to break free naturally. In reality, many addicts struggle to make natural changes and may remain addicted for a lifetime. Consequently, the stage model also has limitations in explaining internet addiction.

3.3.3. Davis’s Cognitive–Behavioral Model

Davis [32] presented a cognitive–behavioral model that perceives internet addiction as a dynamic developmental process with three main stages. In the etiology stage, external factors and the addict’s personality traits, including environmental pressures from family, school, and society, as well as individual characteristics such as low self-esteem and anxiety, may drive adolescents to seek escape and satisfaction in the online world. The development stage emphasizes the crucial role of maladaptive cognition. Inappropriate cognition, such as self-denial and excessive pessimism, prompts adolescents to seek escape and satisfaction online, triggering further cognitive symptoms such as rumination, self-consciousness, and low self-worth. The outcomes stage refers to the behavioral symptoms of internet addiction, including excessive reliance on the internet, immersion in online gaming, and engaging in online social activities. These symptoms arise from emotional and behavioral problems triggered by cognitive symptoms. In addition, Davis [32] distinguishes proximal and distal causes based on their positions in the etiological chain, arguing that internet addiction is not a static process but a series of closely related reasons governing the occurrence of behavioral symptoms. Davis’s cognitive–-behavioral model elucidates cognitive factors, underscoring that diverse cognitive processes in reaction to identical internet stimuli yield distinct outcomes in internet use, furnishing a thorough explication for PIU [45]. However, Davis’s cognitive–behavioral model does not specifically explain the specific impact of social environment on internet use behavior. The model also suggests that certain negative psychological traits are necessary causes of internet addiction, but this view lacks scientific evidence and is speculative.

3.3.4. Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) Model

The I-PACE model proposes a more comprehensive understanding of susceptibility and cognitive factors in specific internet use disorders compared to Davis’s model. It posits that the interplay of various elements, encompassing personal traits, affective and cognitive responses, and individual executive functions, contributes to the emergence of “specific internet use disorders.” This model not only considers psychopathological and social cognitive factors but also scrutinizes personality and biopsychological conditions. It underscores that personal characteristics predict the development of internet-related cognitive distortions and coping strategies, resulting in impulsive urges and cravings for internet use [21]. Furthermore, the I-PACE model incorporates neurobiological factors, such as diminished executive functions and inhibitory control, identified as mediators in the pathway to internet use disorders. However, the practical application of the I-PACE model in internet addiction research is currently constrained, as its validation may necessitate adherence to neuroscientific paradigms in measurement structures, such as go-no-go tasks [70].

3.3.5. Compensatory Internet Use Theory (CIUT)

The CIUT posits that individuals, following stressful events, seek to mitigate psychological stress by engaging in excessive technology use, exemplified by behaviors such as problematic smartphone use (PSU) and internet gaming disorder (IGD). Hence, individuals with emotional psychopathological symptoms, such as depression, are predisposed to augment their internet usage as a coping mechanism for stress reduction and regulation of negative emotions [56]. CIUT contends that adverse life circumstances prompt individuals to immerse themselves in online activities as a means of alleviating negative emotions. The genesis of internet addiction behavior is rooted in an individual’s response to challenging life situations facilitated through the use of internet applications. For instance, individuals lacking social stimuli in real life may be driven to participate in online social activities, with applications such as online games or SNSs offering social services to fulfill this motivation. This can yield both positive and negative outcomes: the positive aspect being an improved emotional state through the receipt of desired social stimuli, and the negative facet being a potential reluctance to seek new offline friendships. Over time, this hints at a potential dependency on the internet to fulfill social needs. From a pathological perspective, individuals may be labeled as having internet addiction not solely due to the compulsive nature of addiction but as a comprehensible and practical strategy for obtaining social stimuli when offline alternatives are lacking [26]. For individuals contending with enduring real-life challenges such a physical disabilities, the necessity for compensatory measures may persist [2]. Conversely, for less severe real-life issues, such as transient school or work-related stress, a limited period of compensatory internet use may contribute positively to an individual’s physical and mental well-being [71]. The above theories are summarized and presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Theory/model of causes of internet addiction in adolescents.

Systemic perspective
Social–ecological systems theory	The theory focuses on the ongoing interactions between an individual’s internet addiction behavior and the systemic environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Adolescent internet addiction may stem from various influences within family, peer, neighborhood, school, and community environments
Social control theory
Social identity theory	There is a tendency for individuals to adhere to the subjective norms of the group and internalize the values of the group as their own beliefs [58, 63]. Structural social capital, denoting people’s maintained social relationships online, and cognitive social capital, pertaining to perceived and expected social support, can serve as motivating factors for frequent social media use [74, 78]
Social capital theory
Individual perspective
Biopsychology	Internet addiction behavior correlates with neurobiological activity and alterations in brain structure. The incentive-sensitization theory postulates that internet use exposes the brain to highly pleasurable stimuli, instigating neurochemical reactions in the excessive activation of the sympathetic nervous system and elevated blood pressure [79, 81]. The dual systems theory posits that internet addiction may divert attention, inducing “laziness” in the cognitive control system of adolescents and consequently weakening their self-control abilities [20, 50]
The incentive-sensitization theory
The dual systems theory
Personality	Genetic, gender, or congenital factors; imbalances in brain chemistry; and disruptions in neurotransmitters [24]. Personality traits including impulsivity and low self-esteem are also influencing IAD. Focused attachment styles and a need for recognition (both characterized by high anxiety) also positively contribute to IAD [34, 44]
Mental disorders	Conditions such as depression, social anxiety disorder, social phobia, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and schizophrenia are closely associated with the occurrence of internet addiction behavior [5, 17, 84]
Motivational perspective
The process of satisfying physical, psychological, and emotional needs
Psychoanalytic theory	Individuals use the internet as a tool to escape problems, satisfy desires, and reduce conflicts
Humanistic theory	The use of the internet can fulfill individuals’ physiological needs, needs for belonging and love, self-esteem needs, and self-actualization needs
Basic psychological need theory
Incentives: a sense of gain and satisfaction
Motivation theory	Extrinsic and intrinsic factors affect the motivation to use the internet. Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity because it is perceived as instrumental in achieving valued outcomes. Intrinsic motivation is defined as the fact of performing an activity resulting from an interest in the action itself such as enjoyment. In terms of internet use, perceived enjoyment is a key intrinsic motivator in increasing social media addiction [31]
Self-determination theory	Internet addiction behavior is driven by specific motivations and psychological needs, emphasizing the importance of individual autonomy, relatedness, and competence [18, 29]
Emotion regulation theory	Internet addiction is related to individual emotional regulation [17]
Uses and gratifications theory	Individuals can consciously choose media that satisfy specific needs to enhance knowledge, relax, engage in social interactions, seek companionship, divert attention, or escape [96]
Behavioral perspective
Coping style: observe, imitate, and learn
Behaviorism theory	Individuals, influenced by external stimuli such as rewards, punishments, and reinforcements, may develop a dependence on internet-related behaviors [35, 57, 82]
Social learning theory	Addiction to the internet is formed through the observation, imitation, and learning of others’ behavior [99]
Decision-making: rewards, behavioral expectations, intentions, and outcomes
Social cognitive theory	Social cognitive theory [100] delves into the cognitive processes of individuals concerning internet addiction. The theory suggests that personal factors, self-efficacy, and self-regulation are the main concepts that determine the behavioral change
Self-control theory	Self-control theory emphasizes the ability to manage one’s thoughts and behaviors in response to external environments. Self-control can be divided into two aspects: restraint and impulsivity [101]. Therefore, some individuals are more restrained and less impulsive than others, so they are more willing to sacrifice short-term entertainment to commit to long-term goals resulting in IAD [30, 54]
Self-escape theory	When individuals perceive a disparity between their current state and expectations, they may resort to internet use as a means of escaping real-life pressures, alleviating negative emotions, and coping with their reactions [66]
Planned behavior theory	Internet addiction behavior is influenced by individual attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control [104]
Specific theories/models of internet addiction
ACE model	The occurrence of internet addiction behavior is explained by three characteristics of the internet: anonymity, convenience, and escape [1]
Stage model	Internet addiction is just a temporary and phase-based behavior, individuals using the internet typically experience three stages: immersion, awakening, and balance [41]
Cognitive–behavioral model	Internet addiction is viewed as a dynamic developmental process, consisting of three main stages: etiology, development, and outcomes [32]
I-PACE model	The interaction of various factors, including personal characteristics, affective and cognitive responses, and individual executive functions [21]
Compensatory internet use theory	Internet addiction behavior is considered an individual’s response to negative life situations [56]

4. Discussion: Theoretical Integration and Implication

4.1. An Integrated Theoretical Framework

The theoretical frameworks and models examined in this study offer diverse perspectives and emphases. Theoretical frameworks operating at both systemic and individual levels contribute significantly to understanding adolescent internet addiction issues and lay the groundwork for intervention measures. Nevertheless, currently, no single theory comprehensively elucidates the intricacies of adolescent internet addiction occurrence [16]. For example, the impact of biopsychological factors, such as genetics or psychopathology, on internet addiction can be further elucidated through factors such as psychological needs and the pursuit of satisfaction [25, 33, 110]. When an individual’s psychological needs are met, combined with the influence of social environmental factors (such as social norms and social identity) and cognitive factors (such as attitudes and outcome expectations), it may foster a strong inclination toward using social media [109]. The Generalized Problematic Internet Use (GPIU) model integrates individual traits with self-determination theory, suggesting that individuals with social skills deficits prefer online social interactions and excessively use the internet to compensate for offline social relationships [111]. Although the mentioned studies integrate relevant factors and theoretical models, there is still a lack of a systematically integrated theoretical framework that covers all potential crucial aspects of the development of internet addiction behavior. Therefore, this study suggests that future research analysis needs to further explore these factors and how general theoretical models interrelate or complement each other to form a more comprehensive theoretical framework.

The present study contends that adolescent internet addiction constitutes a complex phenomenon propelled by multiple external systemic factors and individual-related elements. Physiological factors, individual traits, mental disorders, and other components contribute to variations in individuals’ internet usage behavior and processes. Distinct emotional and cognitive responses, as well as individual executive functions, may manifest during the course of internet use. Therefore, theoretical analysis should prioritize the interaction of multifaceted factors, taking into account the distinct impact of systemic environments on individuals and the various potential mechanisms from an individual perspective to avoid rigid adherence to a binary division.

Specifically, from a systemic level, broader social conditions, specific social and cultural environments, and the complex interpersonal relationship processes within the primary social units of adolescents (family and school) and specific social networks emphasize the environmental explanations for internet addiction behaviors [29, 37]. Both the social–ecological systems theory and social control theory provide theoretical guidance on the impact of external social environments on the development of adolescent internet addiction behaviors. At the macrosystem level, an individual’s social background and cultural (and political) environment may also lead to IAD. For example, a geopolitical environment characterized by high stress and limited opportunities for open socialization may drive citizens to seek refuge on social media [76]. In addition, cultural differences, such as individualism versus collectivism, have also been found to be associated with IAD [22]. Specific social interaction networks have a significant impact on adolescent internet addiction behaviors. Social identity theory and social capital theory emphasize that individuals may frequently use the internet to gain social capital support and social trust, and reduce feelings of loneliness in the real world, due to the prevalence of such network technologies within their social networks (i.e., subjective group norms) or the shared group values of using the internet (i.e., internalization) [80].

Second, it is essential to focus on the profound impact of individual-level factors on excessive internet use. This includes biopsychological factors, personal traits, and psychopathology, all of which significantly shape an individual’s psychological and emotional engagement with the internet, thereby influencing their internet usage behaviors [21, 24]. From a biopsychological perspective, the incentive-sensitization theory [81, 83] and the dual systems theory [20, 50] emphasize factors such as genetics, gender, brain structure, stress susceptibility, and early childhood experiences, providing differential explanations for internet addiction behaviors among individuals. In terms of personal traits, the attachment theory also offers theoretical guidance. Different attachment styles have varying impacts on individual internet addiction behaviors, with high anxious attachment and avoidant attachment styles increasing the likelihood of internet addiction. Low self-efficacy and low self-esteem are also significant predictors of adolescent internet addiction behaviors [38, 44, 59]. In addition, psychopathology highlights the influence of mental disorders such as depression, social phobia, and ADHD [5, 17] on adolescent internet addiction behaviors.

Third, external environmental systems and subjective cognitive contexts continuously influence personality, motivations, and behaviors related to internet use. These factors shape individuals’ cognitive responses and emotional needs, affecting their ability to control internet use and leading to addiction behaviors [5, 65]. Theories at the individual level help elucidate the internal processes that may contribute to adolescent internet addiction. This study categorizes relevant theories of individual IAD into two aspects: individual motivation and behavior. Motivation for internet use emphasizes needs and incentives, while usage behavior emphasizes coping styles and decision-making. These aspects are analyzed from the perspective of “individual–emotion–cognition–behavior,” considering how cognitive and attentional biases, coping strategies, internet use expectations, inhibitory control, and desires influence individuals’ subjective perception of the environment, cognitive responses, emotional needs, and ultimately determine internet use and addiction. From the perspective of individual motivation, it highlights the incentives that adolescents gain from their needs and rewards obtained through internet use [43]. The psychoanalytic theory, humanistic theory, and basic psychological needs theory emphasize the process through which adolescents fulfill physical, psychological, and emotional needs during internet use. The motivation theory, self-determination theory, emotion regulation theory, and UGT analyze how adolescents meet needs such as self-efficacy, self-actualization, competence, and autonomy during internet use. The positive reinforcement from emotional satisfaction and needs fulfilled through internet use significantly impacts adolescents’ emotions and subjective well-being, leading them to immerse themselves in the virtual world of the internet [65, 112]. The behavioral perspective, derived from behavior analysis, emphasizes individual coping styles and decision-making, highlighting the interaction of behavior, environment, and the individual in the process of adolescent internet addiction. Theories such as social learning theory and behaviorism theory suggest that internet addiction stems from learned behaviors. This perspective links adolescents’ cognitive processes, expectations, beliefs, and behaviors during internet use, examining observational, imitative, and learning behaviors in internet use. Social cognitive theory, social-control theory, social-escape theory, and planned behavior theory analyze how the immediate rewards gained during internet use can influence future behavioral expectations and intentions, potentially reinforcing adolescent internet addiction. Moreover, the CIUT posits that when it is difficult to meet adolescents’ physiological and psychological needs in the real world, they seek fulfillment through internet use. Cognitive biases towards the internet will continually strengthen internet use behavior, ultimately leading to loss of control and internet addiction.

This study argues that the theoretical analysis of adolescent internet addiction is a multifaceted process, advocating against a simplistic reliance on a single perspective. Instead, a comprehensive approach should be adopted, considering both systemic environmental factors and individual-level influences (see Figure 1). This entails the thorough examination of diverse elements and potential mechanisms, including physiological, psychological, personal traits, motivational needs, behavioral decision-making, and cognitive situation during adolescents’ internet usage. This integrated theoretical approach offers a more nuanced understanding of the complexities associated with internet addiction among adolescents. Subsequent research endeavors should empirically scrutinize and validate the explanatory power and modifiable inherent mechanisms.

Details are in the caption following the image — **Figure 1**
Open in figure viewer PowerPoint

An integration of theoretical perspectives conceptualizing IAD.

4.2. Intervention Strategies: Summary of Systemic and Individual Level

To address the development of adolescent internet addiction, intervention strategies and policy recommendations can be proposed from both systemic environmental and individual perspectives.

From a systemic environmental standpoint, it is crucial to establish a comprehensive monitoring and assessment system for adolescent internet addiction. This entails advocating for regular assessments in schools, communities, and homes to identify at-risk groups early and intervene promptly [63, 73, 85]. Supporting and encouraging school and community social workers to conduct these assessments will ensure more accurate data and feedback. In addition, strengthening interdepartmental collaboration and resource integration is essential. This involves establishing collaborative mechanisms across schools, communities, and departments including education, social work, mental health, and public safety. Through policy advocacy and resource integration, a reliable platform for internet addiction intervention resources should be established [82]. This platform will provide information and support adolescents and their families, including online resources and on-site support, to enhance the comprehensive effectiveness and sustainability of internet addiction intervention and treatment.

At the individual level, social workers and community workers should promote diversified service models for adolescent internet addiction intervention. This includes psychological counseling, family therapy, individual psychological training, and behavioral cognitive interventions [5, 19, 113]. Education and mental health services should focus on helping adolescents improve their self-control and autonomous decision-making abilities, enhancing their self-management skills regarding internet use behavior. Encouraging families and schools to cultivate adolescents’ autonomy and sense of responsibility in daily life is critical. This involves building healthy parent–child relationships and peer support systems to enhance adolescents’ social skills and social support experiences, thereby reducing the likelihood of them becoming engrossed in virtual social networks [33, 40]. Furthermore, promoting healthy internet usage patterns, including guidance on regulated usage time, content selection, and online safety education, will enhance adolescents’ awareness of internet risks and consequences.

Comprehensive responses to adolescent internet addiction should integrate interventions from both systemic environmental and individual perspectives, promoting their healthy development and social adaptation capabilities.

5. Conclusion

Adolescent internet addiction behaviors are detrimental to their physical and mental health development, arising from the complex interaction of systemic and individual factors. To provide effective interventions, a comprehensive theoretical understanding of how adolescent internet addiction behaviors develop is essential. This study identifies theoretical gaps and future research directions by analyzing 24 theories and models guiding the research design in 78 IAD studies. This review indicates that different theoretical perspectives provide significant insights into the causes of individual internet addiction behaviors, supporting evidence-based interventions to address adolescent internet addiction. However, this review also has limitations. First, we only summarized results related to constructs within identified theories and models. Future reviews could be more inclusive in literature selection and results ‘incorporation. Second, we categorized theories/models based on their primary perspectives; however, some theories/models encompass constructs related to multiple perspectives. These connections are less clear in the results, and future reviews could more broadly synthesize and link these theories/models. Third, while we integrated different theories/models in this review, future research needs to empirically validate the feasibility of this integrated theoretical model.

Ethics Statement

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Disclosure

The authors declare that this paper has not been published previously and it is not under consideration for publication elsewhere.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Funding

This study was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant no. 72204216) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities.

Acknowledgments

The authors appreciate the support from the Zhejiang Provincial Cultural Innovation Research Center.

Open Research

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing is not applicable as no new data are generated.

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All articles

Theoretical Perspectives on Adolescent Internet Addiction: A Comprehensive Literature Review

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Method

3. Result: Theories and Models That Guide IAD

3.1. Systemic Level: Influence of the Environment on Individuals

3.1.1. Social–Ecological Systems Theory

3.1.2. Social Identity Theory

3.2. Individual Level: The Influence of Individuals on IAD

3.2.1. Biopsychology, Personality, and Mental Disorders

3.2.1.1. Biopsychology

3.2.1.2. Personality

3.2.1.3. Mental Disorders

3.2.2. Motivational Perspective: Needs and Incentives

3.2.2.1. Psychoanalytic Theory

3.2.2.2. Humanistic Theory

3.2.2.3. Motivation Theory

3.2.2.4. Self-Determination Theory

3.2.2.5. Emotion Regulation Theory

3.2.2.6. Uses and Gratifications Theory (UGT)

3.2.3. Behavioral Perspective: Coping Style and Decision-Making

3.2.3.1. Behaviorism Theory

3.2.3.2. Social Learning Theory

3.2.3.3. Social Cognitive Theory

3.2.3.4. Self-Control Theory

3.2.3.5. Self-Escape Theory

3.2.3.6. Planned Behavior Theory

3.3. Specific Theories/Models of Internet Addiction

3.3.1. Young’s ACE Model

3.3.2. Grohol’s Stage Model

3.3.3. Davis’s Cognitive–Behavioral Model

3.3.4. Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) Model

3.3.5. Compensatory Internet Use Theory (CIUT)

4. Discussion: Theoretical Integration and Implication

4.1. An Integrated Theoretical Framework

4.2. Intervention Strategies: Summary of Systemic and Individual Level

5. Conclusion

Ethics Statement

Disclosure

Conflicts of Interest

Funding

Acknowledgments

Open Research

Data Availability Statement

References

Figures

References

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