Radiosynovectomy (RSV) represents an advanced therapeutic modality in nuclear medicine, designed to treat chronic inflammatory joint disorders that are unresponsive to conventional therapies. This targeted approach involves the intra-articular administration of radioactive microparticles containing a β⁻-emitting radionuclide, selectively eradicating the inflamed synovial membrane while preserving surrounding tissues. As a minimally invasive, nonsurgical procedure routinely performed in outpatient settings, RSV offers a compelling alternative to more invasive interventions. Over time, RSV has evolved significantly, transitioning from the empirical use of radiocolloids to the development of specialized agents tailored for different joint types. Advancements in this field continue to explore a variety of β⁻-emitting radionuclides with unique emission characteristics, integrated into novel microparticles to improve both specificity and therapeutic efficacy. The selection of an optimal radionuclide hinges on critical nuclear and chemical properties, ensuring effective binding to microparticles and delivering favorable clinical outcomes. This review examines the evolution of RSV in joint disorder management, detailing its mechanisms of action, key factors influencing radionuclide and microparticle selection, and the methodologies involved in their development and production. Additionally, it provides an overview of commonly used radionuclides and microparticles, evaluating their effectiveness within the ever-evolving landscape of RSV.

1. Introduction

Joint disorders resulting from inflammation can lead to joint pain, degeneration of cartilage, accumulation of crystals, or infectious processes. The phenomenon of joint inflammation epitomizes one of the most prevalent health concerns worldwide and constitutes a considerable contributor to disability. The pain associated with joint inflammation may impose functional limitations, thereby impacting the emotional health of affected individuals and reducing the overall quality of life for patients.

Amid the spectrum of joint disorders, rheumatoid arthritis (RA) has emerged as one of the prominent contributors, characterized by an abnormal proliferation of synovial tissue, which affects approximately 1%-2% of the global population [1]. The progression of joint deterioration in RA transpires in stages, commencing with inflammation of the synovial membrane, which leads to pain and swelling, subsequently followed by heightened cellular proliferation and pannus formation, culminating in synovial thickening. Thereafter, the cells of the inflamed membrane secrete enzymes that degrade the surrounding bone and cartilage, culminating in joint deformities, discomfort, and constrained mobility. In the terminal stages of the disease, fibrous tissue may undergo ossification, causing complete immobility of the joint [2]. RA is recognized as the most common autoimmune disorder and one of the most prevalent forms of arthritis [3]. Typically, RA emerges in the twilight of adulthood [4] and potentially leads to complications including the inflammation of the heart and lungs, alongside peripheral neuropathy [5–8]. Considering the extensive systemic ramifications of RA, localized treatment modalities may be preferentially employed to circumvent adverse systemic repercussions.

Hemophilia, a hereditary joint disorder predominantly affecting males, leads to joint complications and functional impairment due to clotting factor deficiencies. Key symptoms include joint hemorrhages and chronic hemophilic synovitis, which, if untreated, can progress to hemophilic arthropathy. Consequently, treatment focuses on effectively managing hemarthroses and preventing recurrent joint bleeding through prophylactic measures [9–14]. A variety of therapeutic modalities, inclusive of systemic treatments such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), glucocorticoids, and disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), have been formulated to improve quality of life through pain reduction, prolongation of life expectancy, and sustenance of joint function [15–17]. Localized interventions designed to mitigate joint inflammation and pain have been met with limited success, thereby necessitating the exploration of synovectomy as a means to relieve symptoms and preserve joint health, amid concerns regarding side effects and long-term efficacy [18].

Emerging treatment strategies for joint diseases encompass a range of approaches, including open surgery, arthroscopic synovectomy, and radiation synovectomy (RSV), with RSV demonstrating notable effectiveness in the management of RA and persistent synovial inflammation associated with other conditions. The treatment modality known as synoviorthesis or radiosynovectomy or RSV, first conceived in the year 1924 [19], employs radiopharmaceuticals to administer a β⁻-emitting radionuclide into the joints, aiming to obliterate inflamed tissue, consequently mitigating inflammation, preventing fluid accumulation, and improving joint functionality [20–24].

Over the decades, the deliberate utilization of various radionuclides with distinct radioactive decay properties for managing a wide array of joints, including small peripheral ones, has driven the rapid evolution of RSV. Once a niche and innovative therapy reserved for select patients, RSV has progressively become an essential clinical practice, significantly reshaping the trajectory of joint disease treatment. The therapeutic approach to both acute and chronic inflammatory joint disorders has undergone significant evolution with the introduction and advancement of RSV over the years [25–39].

As RSV continues to evolve, breakthroughs in the field could have profound clinical implications, sparking enthusiasm among researchers and clinicians. This review highlights recent advancements in RSV, providing insights to support researchers and medical professionals working in this dynamic area. We will explore RA, current treatment options, the benefits of RSV, radionuclide selection and carriers, and an assessment of existing radionuclides and their clinical efficacy. Given the interdisciplinary scope of this field, we acknowledge the possibility of unintentional omissions of significant contributions.

2. Pathophysiology of Synovial Joints and Synovitis

Before delving into any discussion on RSV, it is pertinent to briefly discuss synovial joints, synovitis, and their pathogenesis, as these concepts form the basis of RSV.

2.1. Synovial Joints

Synovial joints possess a synovial cavity containing synovial fluid to facilitate movement between bones. Articular cartilage prevents friction between the bones. A thin synovial membrane lines the inner capsule with synoviocytes. The membrane has collagen and glycosaminoglycan. It contains two mesenchymal layers—the intima and the subintimal layer [40]. Synoviocytes are home to cells adorned with the powers of secretion and phagocytosis. The cellular composition of the intimal layer of the synovial membrane includes two distinct types: Type A cells, primarily responsible for phagocytic and absorptive functions, and Type B cells, specialized in secretion [41–43]. The synovial membrane juggles three cardinal roles: serving as a guardian for solute transportation, purging foreign invaders, and crafting hyaluronan and lubricin [44, 45]. Type B cells stand as sturdy sentinels within joints, ensnaring synovial fluid. Type A synoviocytes play a crucial role in immunity, while Type B synoviocytes regulate nutrient release. Beneath the synovial membrane lies the subsynovial membrane, which houses vital blood vessels—the only vessels present within the joint environment. Within joints, synovial fluid flows seamlessly, providing lubrication and nourishment to cartilage, while harboring essential cells such as chondrocytes and synoviocytes. Inflammatory signals within joints can reduce synovial fluid viscosity while increasing plasma content. The avascular nature of articular cartilage gracefully permits bone choreography, while ligaments elegantly connect bones within joints, providing unwavering support and delicately restricting the range of motion.

2.2. Synovitis

On occasion, the synovial tissue might thicken due to congestion and swelling, intruding aggressively into surrounding tissues, resulting in a distressing condition recognized as synovitis. This condition results in thickening of the synovial membrane, which includes blood vessels, immune cells, and cells similar to fibroblasts. Proliferation takes place within the synovial membrane, spreading into the interior compartment of the joint. While the synovium proliferates, the inflamed tissue called pannus migrates from the synovium toward the articular cartilage, ultimately leading to erosions. This can lead to damage to nearby tissues due to reduced blood circulation, culminating in fibrosis and calcification. Therefore, there is a disruption in the normal flow of synovial fluid through the pores of the articular cartilage, resulting in the cartilage becoming thinner, weaker, and less flexible as a result of reduced nutrient diffusion. The invading inflammatory tissues transform into tough fibrous tissue, aggressively occupying the joint space, resulting in erosion of the cartilage and underlying bone, as well as restricting joint movement, ultimately causing discomfort. Synovial fibroblasts contribute to the initiation of inflammation and deterioration of joints by synthesizing inflammatory cytokines and enzymes that break down the extracellular matrix. Synovitis is a condition that triggers the growth of the inner lining of joints, causing damage to cartilage, bone, ligaments, tendons, and ultimately joint destruction. Synovitis is pathologically defined by the development of neovascularization; infiltration of the synovium by various immune cells including lymphocytes, plasma cells, and macrophages; and proliferation of synovial lining cells.

2.3. Pathogenesis

While the etiology of RA remains incompletely elucidated, a multitude of distinct pathophysiological processes and molecules unique to RA have been identified and studied in detail. The disease is characterized by synovial hypertrophy and persistent joint inflammation. The proliferation of synoviocytes, coupled with the abnormal activation of various immune-responsive cells including T-lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, dendritic cells, and leukocytes, plays a crucial role in driving inflammation, shaping disease progression, and influencing clinical outcomes. This, in turn, promotes the activation of B cells and macrophages, leading to the release of proinflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukins (ILs). Notably, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), predominantly produced by macrophages, assumes a pivotal role in both the initiation and perpetuation of inflammatory responses, including the induction of IL-1 [46]. An overabundance of TNF-α within the joints fosters the proliferation of synoviocytes and initiates a cascade of mediators that attract inflammatory cells, culminating in joint destruction [47]. Two specific autoantibodies, namely, rheumatoid factor (RF) and antibodies that recognize citrullinated proteins (ACPA), are regarded as significant biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of autoimmune diseases [48].

3. Strategies Evolved for the Management of Joint Disorder

Evolution in the management of joint disorders has shifted focus from symptom relief to slowing down structural deterioration. This section delves into the progression of treatment approaches and recent innovations in this realm, aiming to restore joint functionality, enhance the quality of life, impede disease advancement, relieve pain, rectify deformities, and offer preventive measures. The selection of therapeutic measures is contingent on the affected joint, the extent of damage, and the severity of the condition.

In the 19^th century, joint ailments were often treated by surgically removing inflamed synovial tissue through procedures like arthrosynovectomy and tenosynovectomy. These methods aimed to clean irregular joint linings with minimal damage, using simple incisions. The first recorded excision of an inflamed synovial membrane occurred in 1877 for tuberculous arthritis, but the method fell out of favor due to the risk of disease relapse [49]. Surgical methodologies evolved over time to improve success rates, incorporating new techniques and prosthetics. The open synovectomy procedure is beneficial for conditions like knee inflammatory arthritis, hemophilic synovitis, pigmented villonodular synovitis, and synovial chondromatosis [50–53]. While surgically removing an inflamed synovial membrane through anterior and posterior incisions proves effective, it entails a prolonged hospital stay, and postoperative complications, and necessitates rehabilitation [53, 54]. The use of surgical debridement techniques has varied over time, particularly with the rise of arthroscopic synovectomy and other noninvasive methods. Today, it plays a more limited role and is generally considered an elective procedure [55]. As an alternative to surgical removal of the inflamed synovial membrane, a less intrusive and effective surgical approach, focusing on removing only the affected areas, arthroscopic synovectomy was first introduced for knee joints in the early 1980s, with Highenboten documenting the initial procedure in 1982 [56]. Although arthroscopy holds an edge over open surgery, it may not be deemed suitable for sizable popliteal masses or involvement beyond the joint [57, 58] and substantiating this perspective is lamentably limited [59].

The use of chemical agents, anti-inflammatory, and radioactive substances for intra-articular injection in the management of inflammatory joint conditions exhibits considerable promise, attributable to its targeted drug release, minimally invasive nature, shorter recovery time, and reduced scarring. Within the realm of chemical synovectomy, the use of osmium tetroxide merits meticulous contemplation [60, 61]. Osmic acid targets inflamed synovial tissue and fat, owing to its pronounced lipid affinity and protein coagulation properties. This leads to necrosis followed by regeneration, thereby reducing pain, stiffness, and swelling, particularly in older male patients with knee arthritis [62–68]. However, the high risk of recurrence at 5 years, coupled with the prospect of chondrocyte necrosis, has considerably dampened the popularity of chemical synovectomy [69–72]. Hyaluronate and corticosteroids have become key agents in medical synovectomy for arthritis management due to their effectiveness and low toxicity. Their intra-articular use has seen a notable surge following Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval [73, 74]. A wide range of corticosteroid formulations, including triamcinolone acetonide, are utilized in injection regimens [75–91]. However, prolonged use of such agents may result in adverse effects and systemic toxicity, necessitating the need for a careful evaluation of their benefits against potential risks [92–97].

Biologic medications employed in targeted RA therapies encompass TNF-α inhibitors (such as infliximab, adalimumab, etanercept, golimumab, and certolizumab pegol); rituximab, which targets the B cell–specific CD 20 antigen; abatacept, which inhibits T-cell co-stimulation; and tocilizumab, which blocks the IL-6 receptor [98–102]. Biologics are highly effective in managing RA by alleviating symptoms, slowing disease progression, and enhancing quality of life. However, limited comparative trial evidence does not establish a clear preference for one treatment over another. While these therapies modulate the immune system to reduce inflammation, they also increase the risk of infections and potential malignancies due to immune suppression [101, 102].

Researchers are increasingly exploring the use of ionizing radiation for treating joint disorders, focusing on RSV to eliminate diseased synovial membranes while protecting surrounding tissues. This approach involves intra-articular administration of radioactive substances, which has been improved through the use of imaging tools like ultrasound and X-ray for accurate delivery.

4. RSV

The journey from the inception and practical usefulness of RSV to its acknowledged status in the management of various joint ailments has been meandering and extensive. Presently, RSV has penetrated deeply into the firmly established therapeutic routines for treating joint conditions. The significant spread and promising potential of RSV are predominantly ascribed to the following.

RSV is typically performed on an outpatient basis and often performs as a day-care procedure [103–109]. It proves to be advantageous for all types of joints, including the smaller ones at the periphery, while maintaining a positive cost-to-benefit ratio [110–113]. It eliminates the necessity for postoperative physical therapy to prevent or alleviate joint stiffness linked to surgical synovectomy. There are no surgical or anesthetic risks involved and no risk of infection due to the potent β⁻ radiation released by the radionuclide in the joint, which eradicates all bacteria. This offers an attractive therapeutic alternative for individuals who are unsuitable candidates for surgical intervention [31]. The extent and length of rehabilitation needed are minimal, with a low dose of effective radiation used in treatment [110]. It allows for the treatment of multiple joints simultaneously on an outpatient basis. Multiple administrations of radioactive doses may be needed to achieve the optimal response, and it is relatively devoid of side effects. Furthermore, the option exists to repeat the process 6 months later in instances of treatment ineffectiveness. In comparison with chemical synovectomy, it is generally more reliable and efficient in deactivating the synovium, leading to improved quality of life and successful management of synovitis. The long-term safety profile of RSV has been well-established, with no reported adverse effects linked to the radioactive substances [109].

4.1. Mechanism of Action

Colloids formed within bodily fluids as remnants of tiny organisms, pieces of cells produced when tissues regenerate naturally, and substances absorbed in the intestines, typically removed from circulation through phagocytosis. In this intricate mechanism, colloids in the space outside cells are taken inside by cells like macrophages. While macrophages are commonly located in organs like the liver, spleen, bone marrow, and lymph nodes, they can also be found widely in regions with inflammation.

The commencement of RSV involves the introduction of a radiolabeled particle into either the joint, sheath cavity, or bursa. Right after this application, phagocytosis by Type A synoviocytes enables them to capture the particles. Macrophages, that make up the outer layer of lining cells in the synovial membrane, adhere to particles utilizing a receptor-mediated mechanism and internalize them through an actin-driven process [114].

The structure of the macrophage membrane alters to envelop the particle within. The phagocytosis process unfolds through the following steps: (1) particles reaching the macrophage membrane surface, (2) particle adhesion to the cell surface, (3) the phagocyte ingesting the attached particle by extending pseudopods around it, and (4) merging of the particle within a phagocytic vacuole known as a phagosome. Numerous factors, such as the dimensions of particles, their morphology, charge on the surface, chemical composition of the surface, and mechanical properties, may influence the phagocytosis mechanism [23, 115–120]. The diagram presented in Figure 1 illustrates the mechanism of phagocytosis.

Details are in the caption following the image — **Figure 1**
Open in figure viewer PowerPoint

The process of phagocytosis.

The β⁻ particles emitted by the radionuclide travel with kinetic energy, ultimately coming to rest near the synovial tissue within a range of few millimeters to 1 cm, depending on the chosen radionuclide. The synchronized progression of coagulation necrosis, fibrosis, and sclerosis in the synovial tissue is observed due to exposure to β⁻ radiation emitted by the radionuclide. The pathologically altered pannus and inflamed synovium undergo destruction through lipid peroxidation, driven by a complex interplay between direct interactions and reactive oxygen radicals. Radioisotopes emerge as more effective in treating diseased synovium, outshining anti-inflammatory or antiproliferative drugs, as the oxygen radicals generated from radiolysis hold the power to induce apoptosis.

Selective irradiation induces histological changes, including a reduction in synovial villi size, increased blood flow, decreased cellular infiltration, and synovial hardening. It is important to note that the radiation does not directly affect cartilage, as it lacks the ability to phagocytose radiolabeled particles and does not contain nerves or blood vessels. Consequently, it cannot perceive pain. The success of the treatment depends on various factors, including joint size, pathological changes in synovial thickness, synovial structure, joint fluid condition, and the degree of inflammation in the synovium [121]. The removal of the swollen synovium not only reduces the flow of synovial fluid but also leads to fibrosis of the synovial membrane and a decrease in inflammatory tissue [122]. The blockage of small blood vessels and capillaries in the synovial membrane can lead to the growth of fibrous tissue, reducing secretory activity and ultimately decreasing pain and stopping joint swelling [123]. This approach prevents additional damage to the joint cavity that would typically result from ongoing immune responses, allowing for the potential for prolonged periods of relief [124].

To ensure an even spread of radiolabeled particles in the joint for delivering radiation to the inflamed synovium while minimizing leakage, it is important to use radioactive particles of the right size. Smaller particles provide uniform distribution but may leak beyond the joint, while larger particles resist leakage but may not irradiate the synovial membrane evenly. To avoid the harmful effects of radiation on organs such as the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes, it is important to bind the radionuclide to particles that can be absorbed without being released through lymphatic drainage. The ideal particle size range is between 2 and 10 μm, as this effectively prevents leakage through lymphatic drainage, ensuring optimal performance [125, 126]. Figure 2 illustrates a visual representation of RSV.

The shape of particles is a key element influencing how macrophages take up radiolabeled particles. When particles are being engulfed through phagocytosis, the shape of the particles influences how the macrophage membrane rearranges itself. Research on the internalization of inorganic particles showed that spheres are engulfed more effectively than rods or needles [127]. Other research groups have suggested that the uptake of rod-shaped particles is influenced by their aspect ratio, with extremely high ratios potentially preventing phagocytosis altogether [128]. A noteworthy observation is that hydrophobic targets are significantly more prone to phagocytosis compared to hydrophilic targets [129].

4.2. Selection of Radiopharmaceutical

There have been notable advancements in radiopharmaceuticals for RSV due to extensive research conducted in recent years. Radiopharmaceuticals intended for use in RSV are required to meet several specific criteria:

•
Radiopharmaceuticals for RSV must contain a β⁻-emitting radionuclide capable of optimal tissue penetration, along with microparticles that deliver precise cytotoxic ionizing radiation to the affected synovial tissue.
•
A stable metabolically resistant bond between the radionuclide and microparticles is essential to ensure in vivo stability of the radiopharmaceuticals during RSV.
•
The radiopharmaceutical should be able to withstand degradation during storage, transportation, and distribution.
•
To effectively target RSV, radiolabeled agents must possess dimensions that allow for ingestion by Type A synoviocytes within the synovial membrane without risking leakage from the joint. The ideal particle size range for these agents falls between 2 and 10 μm [125, 126].
•
Preventing the escape of radiolabeled substances from the treated joint is essential due to the potential risk of exposing nontarget organs to harmful radiation. This can be mitigated by using a short half-life radionuclide that decays before leakage can occur.
•
The distribution of radiolabeled agents within the joint should be uniform without causing an inflammatory reaction.
•
The radiopharmaceutical should be easy to prepare and scalable for large-scale production.
•
The ability to formulate radiopharmaceuticals in-house is important for cost-effective production.

4.3. Key Steps Involved in Radiopharmaceutical Development

The selection of radiopharmaceuticals for addressing RSV is contingent upon various factors, including the depth of the synovial membrane being targeted, the dimensions of the impacted joint, the dispersion of the radiopharmaceuticals within the joint fluid, and the degree of inflammation. Developing radiolabeled agents for RSV involves several steps that need to be completed before they can be used clinically. These stages involve assessing the size of the joints requiring intervention (large, medium, or small), selecting an appropriate radionuclide based on joint size to avoid cartilage and skin damage, choosing a suitable microparticle for radionuclide attachment, developing a radiolabeling method to ensure optimal efficacy and specificity, and evaluating the quality of radioactive particles before treatment.

4.4. Microparticle for RSV

Since it is crucial to keep the radionuclide within the synovial joint to deliver an accurate radiation dose to the synovium, the use of radiocolloids or radiolabeled microparticles, where the radionuclide is bound to a nondiffusible particle, offers a promising and potentially indispensable strategy for RSV.

4.4.1. Selection of Microparticles

The selection of microparticles for RSV is primarily guided by the following key criteria:

•
The selected microparticles should be biologically inert, nontoxic, and incapable of eliciting an immune response.
•
Biodegradable and biocompatible materials possess the ability to be broken down by natural biological processes within the joint, leading to their elimination from the body without causing harmful effects. These materials are designed to degrade without leaving toxic residues, ensuring rapid clearance without adverse effects on the synovial tissue.
•
To ensure effective RSV treatment, microparticles must be capable of remaining suspended in the bloodstream throughout the duration of therapy. It is critical that the density of the microparticle closely mimics the density of human blood, which generally falls within the range of 1.01 to 1.09 g/cm³.
•
An important characteristic of the microparticles chosen for RSV is their ability to be effectively absorbed by the macrophages located in the synovial lining of the joints. Particularly, macrophages exhibit a preference for hydrophobic particles during uptake.
•
The capacity to retain their chemical properties is essential during the process of radiolabeling, which includes various actions such as dividing into small portions, combining, agitating, separating through centrifugation, and subjecting to ultrasonic waves. Additionally, these materials must be able to form physiologically acceptable suspensions or dispersions that remain stable without settling or aggregating. When combined with suitable liquid carriers, such as isotonic saline or phosphate buffer solutions, they should be appropriate for injection or infusion for in vivo administration.
•
The selected microparticles for RSV application must possess a stable shelf-life, resistant to aggregation and adherence, and be resilient to various environmental factors such as pH, temperature, and denaturing agents commonly encountered during preparation or storage processes.
•
Adequate chemical affinity is necessary to facilitate a secure binding with various radionuclides. The microparticle must establish a chemically stable conjugation capable of withstanding degradation in vivo and sustaining its size within the typical physiological parameters both pre- and post-therapy.
•
The microparticles must be resistant to radiological degradation and capable of being easily sterilized.
•
The microparticles should be economically viable for commercial production or mass production, with a fast, simple, and consistent preparation process.

4.4.2. Size of the Microparticles

The dimensions of radiocolloidal particles play a significant role in the effectiveness of RSV. The particles need to possess a sufficient size to maintain their integrity within the synovial joint, enabling them to be taken up by the superficial cells of the synovium. Additionally, these particles must have the capability to inhibit excessive leakage from the affected joint. Inadequate particle size could lead to the unwanted leakage of radionuclides toward neighboring lymph nodes and nontarget organs such as the liver and spleen. The key factor to achieve success in RSV lies in choosing the right size microparticle, taking into account various factors elaborated below:

•
The dimensions of the microparticles must be sufficiently diminutive to be engulfed by the superficial cells of the synovium, while also avoiding being excessively tiny so as to be swiftly eliminated through biological clearance by diffusion from the joint.
•
Although smaller particles allow for an even distribution of radiation on the synovium, they may also lead to a higher occurrence of spread beyond the joint. Conversely, larger particles, while resisting leakage, may result in an uneven distribution that could impact the irradiation of the synovial membrane.
•
In order to achieve a consistent radiation dose around the synovium for effective treatment, it is advised to use microparticles with a uniform size distribution. Uneven distribution of these particles could result in unfavorable treatment outcomes—an excess of particles in one area may lead to over-irradiation, while a shortage in another area could result in insufficient irradiation.
•
Microparticles should be of a size that allows them to maintain their properties even in the harsh conditions of radiolabeling.
•
The microparticles need to stay steady in liquid solutions when subjected to high temperatures for sterilization, as they cannot be effectively sterilized by filtration.
•
These particles can have various shapes such as spheres, plates, needles, and rods.
•
An optimal particle size of 2 to 10 μm is necessary to avoid leakage from the joint through lymphatic drainage [125, 126].

4.4.3. Microparticles Commonly Used in the Preparation of RSV Agents

A variety of microparticulates are being used to prepare radiopharmaceuticals for RSV, such as glass, ferric hydroxide (FHMA), chromic phosphate, human serum albumin, polylactic acid, Sn colloid, hydroxyapatite (HA), silicate, citrate, chitosan, and nanoaggregates. Although this review does not provide a detailed analysis of each particle, some of the most prominent ones in the field will be briefly highlighted.

4.4.3.1. Glass

Glass is formed through the fusion of metal oxides, creating a remarkable composite material. Through meticulous experimentation, glass spheres of uniform size could be produced. Initially nonradioactive, it undergoes transformation within a platinum crucible at the precise glass-forming temperature. Afterward, the material goes through a process of annealing, crushing, and sieving before being placed in a nuclear reactor to become radioactive. Amid the process of neutron activation, an inactive glass material transforms into radioactive particles of required dimensions. The glass microparticles boast numerous advantages, including exceptional stability, resistance to radiation-induced damage, high insolubility, nontoxicity, compositional versatility, and minimal leaching potential [130, 131]. Despite these splendid qualities, impediments loom large in the form of high density, erratic shape, and stubborn non-biodegradability, hindering the widespread adoption of glass microspheres in RSV. A vast body of literature explores the fabrication of glass microspheres and their applications in RSV [131–133].

4.4.3.2. Chitosan

In the realm of amino-polysaccharides, chitosan stands out with its complex structure composed of 2-deoxy-2-amino-D-glucose units. A positively charged entity arises from the breakdown of chitin, an intricate polymer of β-(1-4)-N-acetyl D-glucosamine. Chitosan’s ability to bind radionuclides is attributed to the complex interplay of amino and hydroxyl groups on its molecular structure, resulting in the formation of chelates [134, 135]. Derived through the alchemical process of alkaline hydrolysis of chitin, commonly found within the husks of marine creatures, chitosan emerges as a remarkable compound with a plethora of virtues. It the realm of RSV, it stands apart for its exceptional biocompatibility, lack of toxicity, minimal allergenic potential, and innate biodegradability [136–141].

4.4.3.3. Silicate

Silicate known for its simplicity and scalability offers a wide range of advantages. It is cost-effective, biocompatible, low in toxicity, stable in laboratory and clinical settings, and easily customizable through surface modifications to target-specific radionuclides, making it a versatile material. Precise control over silica particles opens up numerous possibilities, allowing for adjustments in size, porosity, crystallinity, and shape. Furthermore, the surface chemistry of silica particles facilitates the binding of various radioisotopes without the need for specific chelating agents, creating an ideal platform for RSV. The successful use of silicate macroaggregates carrying radionuclides in RSV therapy has made a significant impact across different joints [142–147].

4.4.3.4. Citrate

Citrate is a versatile, nontoxic, easily accessible, and cost-effective compound. The effective chelation properties of citrate in binding metal ions have been utilized in the development of RSV agents [148–151].

4.4.3.5. Sulfide

The intriguing chemical properties and potential biomedical applications of metal sulfide aggregate particles have garnered significant interest. In Europe, ¹⁸⁶Re-sulfide has received approval for the treatment of various refractory painful arthropathies, though literature on the subject remains limited [149, 152–154].

4.4.3.6. Polylactic Acid (PLA)

Substantial focus has been directed toward the application of PLA owing to its appealing chemical, physical, and biological properties. The utilization of PLA and its derivatives has attracted attention due to their unique mechanical and biological attributes, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, lack of allergenicity, and nontoxic nature. PLA has been approved by the US FDA for use in the food and pharmaceutical industries since 1970s. PLA is commonly manufactured through various techniques like polycondensation, polymerization, and azeotropic dehydration condensation reaction [155–161]. Classified as an aliphatic polyester, PLA can be tailored with a chelator to efficiently bind radionuclides with a high level of binding stability. PLA microspheres have been employed for immobilizing various radionuclides in RSV [162–164].

4.4.3.7. Hydroxyapatite (HA) [Ca₁₀ (PO₄)₆ (OH)₂]

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in utilizing HA microparticles for RSV, owing to their unique physicochemical properties, including biocompatibility, bioresorbability, nonallergenic, nontoxic, and nonimmunogenic nature. Additionally, their remarkable mechanical strength and close resemblance to the carbonated apatite found in human bones and teeth further enhance their appeal. HA is a natural mineral component of the human bone matrix, transforming into Ca²⁺ and PO₄^3- ions through natural metabolic processes which are eventually eliminated from the body within 6 weeks. The surfaces of HA particles harbor reactive sites that facilitate the absorption or covalent bonding with radionuclides to create complexes. Various methodologies such as the sol-gel method, hydrothermal technique, multiple emulsion technique, biomimetic deposition, and electrodeposition have been utilized for the synthesis of HA particles, each offering unique advantages and disadvantages [165, 166]. The remarkable potential displayed by HA particles as a delivery system in RSV has sparked a significant amount of interesting research and innovative therapeutic strategies [167–186]. The remarkable efficacy demonstrated by HA as a carrier molecule for RSV radiopharmaceuticals highlights its crucial role in the research and advancement of RSV therapies.

4.5. Preparation of Radiolabeled Particles for RSV

The labeling of microparticles intended for use in RSV can be conducted either during the preparation of the microparticles or afterward. When choosing the labeling method, key considerations should include the simplicity and effectiveness of the labeling process, as well as the stability of the radionuclide particles in vitro and in vivo.

4.5.1. Radiolabeling During the Particle Preparation

The process primarily involves two sequential stages: Firstly, the conversion of radioactive precursors into a uniformly distributed precipitate of a specific inorganic compound through precise experimental conditions, and secondly, the transformation of this precipitate into uniform, small particles. The temperature of the reaction and the pH of the reaction mixture are essential factors in determining the particle size distribution.

4.5.2. Radiolabeling Particles After Their Preparation

In this approach, two methodologies are employed.

4.5.2.1. Neutron Activation of Preformed Particles

In this approach, preformed particles containing the nonradioactive precursor of the radionuclide undergo neutron activation in a nuclear reactor. During neutron activation, the nonradioactive precursor absorbs neutron, converting it into a radioactive nuclide. The benefits of this method encompass avoiding direct contact with radioactivity for radiolabeling, regulating activity levels by managing irradiation time and neutron flux, along straightforward postirradiation processing. The drawbacks of this technique include the requirement of a nuclear reactor for neutron activation, the need for a relatively high neutron activation cross-section to achieve adequate radioactivity, and the susceptibility of particles to radiolytic degradation. Glass has been identified as the most stable matrix for making radioactive particles utilizing this method.

4.5.2.2. Reaction of Radionuclide With Particles

In this approach, nonradioactive microparticles are first prepared and then subjected to radiolabeling with an appropriate therapeutic radionuclide. In contrast to neutron activation of preformed particles, radiolabeling of particles is fundamentally more straightforward. The advantage of this procedure lies in minimizing radiochemical instability resulting from particle irradiation and circumventing logistical challenges linked to handling radiolabeled particles as well as decay loss. Developing a radiolabeling protocol involves leveraging the chemical attributes of the microparticles and radionuclides. It is imperative to determine the precise amounts of each component required during radiolabeling, as excessively high or low concentrations of any component could jeopardize the integrity of the radiolabeled particles.

Diverse techniques utilized for radiolabeling encompass isotope exchange reactions, incorporating a foreign label, covalently bonding, or chelating (forming complexes) the radionuclide with the particles, adsorption, and more. Despite many radiolabeled particles becoming essential radiopharmaceuticals for various clinical uses, their chemistry remains inadequately understood. Further endeavors are necessary to comprehend the chemistry and mechanisms of radionuclide binding. Such insights would facilitate refining particle size and shape, enabling more precise applications in the days ahead.

4.6. Radionuclide for RSV

A wide range of radioactive elements is available for use in RSV, and the selection is largely dictated by the size of the specific joint undergoing treatment to ensure optimal therapeutic effectiveness. The criteria for selecting a radioactive element in RSV for a particular joint primarily hinge on its nuclear decay properties, chemical behavior, and logistical aspects of production. This choice of selecting the appropriate radionuclide for RSV is influenced by several key factors as outlined below:

•
Radionuclides that emit β⁻ particles, undergo electron capture (EC) and internal conversion (IC) processes, releasing Auger and Coster–Kronig (C-K) electrons, are selected for their precision in delivering targeted radiation to the proliferating layer of the inflamed synovium while safeguarding critical structures like cartilage, bone marrow, and skin from damage.
•
The choice of radionuclide is largely dictated by the size of the synovial membrane in the targeted joint. The radiation’s penetration depth must align with the thickness of the inflamed synovium, ensuring effective treatment while preventing excessive exposure that could harm the articular cartilage, subchondral bone, or overlying skin. Insufficient penetration can lead to ineffective treatment outcomes, while excessive depths may endanger the cartilage surface.
•
High-energy β⁻-emitters, such as ⁹⁰Y and ¹⁸⁸Re, are frequently utilized for RSV of knee joints. Similarly, medium-energy β⁻-emitters, including ¹⁵³Sm, ¹⁷⁷Lu, and ¹⁸⁶Re, are employed in RSV procedures for medium-sized joints such as the glenohumeral joint, elbow, radiocarpal joint, and tibiotarsal joint. In contrast, low-energy β⁻ emitters like ¹⁶⁹Er and radionuclides emitting Auger and C-K electrons, such as ^117mSn, are often advised for smaller joints like the metacarpophalangeal (MCP), proximal interphalangeal (PIP), and metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joints found in the fingers and toes. Additionally, joints such as the distal interphalangeal (DIP), tarsometatarsal (TMT), proximal tibiofibular, and the first carpometacarpal (CMC I) joint of the thumb may also see therapeutic benefits from the use of ¹⁶⁹Er in RSV treatments.
•
The radionuclide should have a half-life long enough to allow practical storage and transportation while ensuring a sustained therapeutic effect. However, it must also be short enough to minimize unnecessary radiation exposure. Additionally, it is crucial to ensure high radionuclidic purity for effective and safe application.
•
The radionuclide’s therapeutic efficacy is primarily derived from its β⁻ or electron emission. Additionally, a low-abundance γ-emission in the range of 100 to 200 keV is beneficial for precise dosimetric calculations, monitoring radiopharmaceutical distribution within the joint, assessing potential extra-articular leakage, and enabling therapeutic tracking using an Anger gamma camera or single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging.
•
The radionuclide must possess chemical characteristics that enable it to be bound to a variety of particles with diverse chemical attributes, or capable of forming colloidal particles of specified size and quality.
•
The radionuclide should be produced using efficient and economical methods to facilitate large-scale availability. Even if a radionuclide possesses ideal therapeutic properties, its widespread adoption in RSV may be hindered if a cost-effective production process is not available.

4.6.1. Gold-198

Gold-198 undergoes decay to ¹⁹⁸Hg with a half-life of 2.7 days through emission of β⁻ particles, with maximum β⁻ energy of 0.96 MeV, and γ energy of 412 keV accounting for 95.6% of emissions. About 99% of the β⁻ particles have an energy between 0 and 0.96 MeV, with the highest energy range observed in soft tissues extending from 3 to 4 mm. Additionally, approximately 95% of the γ emission occurs within the energy range of 0–412 MeV.

The initial studies on the utilization of ¹⁹⁸Au in the management of arthritis were first documented in 1963, with the emphasis on managing long-term knee joint swelling by administering 370 MBq (10 mCi) of ¹⁹⁸Au colloids for treatment [187]. Subsequent to these findings, a multitude of studies have been released in academic journals exploring the use of ¹⁹⁸Au [188–198].

The benefits and drawbacks of using ¹⁹⁸Au for RSV are worth considering. The appeal of utilizing ¹⁹⁸Au lies in its β⁻ energy (0.96 MeV) and tissue infiltration distance of 3–4 mm, making it appropriate for treating large or medium inflamed joints through RSV. Moreover, the half-life of ¹⁹⁸Au, which is 2.7 days, is seen as sufficient for tasks such as radiolabeling, quality control (QC), and providing treatment to patients. To obtain ¹⁹⁸Au with high specific activity and in the desired quantity, a metallic natural gold target (natural gold consists 100% ¹⁹⁷Au) can be irradiated in a reactor and subsequently subjected to straightforward radiochemical processing.

Nevertheless, despite its positive attributes, ¹⁹⁸Au is associated with significant drawbacks. The β⁻-particle emissions only have a range of 3-4 mm in tissues, which could be insufficient for completely ablating thick synovium in chronic knee effusions exceeding 1 cm in thickness. The release of particles, combined with the relatively long half-life of 2.7 days, results in significant radiation exposure to organs such as the lymph nodes, liver, and kidneys. Additionally, the substantial presence of a γ-ray component (412 keV) in ¹⁹⁸Au creates a radiation hazard during the preparation of synovial agents, and also contributes to an excessive radiation dose burden on nearby lymph nodes.

4.6.2. Dysprosium-165

Dysprosium-165-FHMA (FHMA macroaggregate) was the initial radiopharmaceutical agent that sparked enthusiasm for the broader implementation of this technology in treating refractory synovitis as a substitute for surgical methods [199–215].

Dysprosium-165 (¹⁶⁵Dy) has a half-life of 2.33 h and transforms into holmium-165 through the emission of β⁻ particles. The β⁻ particles possess maximum energies of 1286 keV (83%) and 1191 keV (15%), along with a minor γ component with an energy level of 94 keV (3.60%). The γ component can be utilized for monitoring potential leakage of the agent being used for treatment from the targeted site. Furthermore, ¹⁶⁵Dy has a tissue penetration distance of 5.7 mm.

Like all radionuclides, ¹⁶⁵Dy has both advantages and disadvantages. One of the positive aspects of ¹⁶⁵Dy in the context of RSV is its suitability for emitting 1.3 MeV β⁻ particles that can penetrate tissues up to 5.7 mm deep. It also possesses favorable chemical properties for labeling particles; emits γ radiation at 94 keV with an abundance of 3.6%, allowing simultaneous imaging and dosimetry studies; and has a straightforward production process and radiochemical processing for target dissolution.

The short half-life of ¹⁶⁵Dy plays a crucial role in reducing the consequences of any radioactive discharge from the treated joint. Through the neutron irradiation of enriched ¹⁶⁴Dy (natural abundance 28%) targets for short times, one can produce ¹⁶⁵Dy with high specific activity, thanks to the substantial neutron absorption cross-section of ¹⁶⁴Dy (2840 b). The release of β⁻ particles with moderate energy and γ photons with low energy leads to relatively minor radiation exposure and minimal concerns regarding radioprotection.

Despite these favorable characteristics, ¹⁶⁵Dy has not been widely accepted, and its usage has not received approval by US FDA because of concerns about possible capsule leaks causing high radiation exposure to organs like the lymph nodes, liver, and kidneys. Furthermore, the short half-life of ¹⁶⁵Dy requires a nearby nuclear reactor for consistent radionuclide production and necessitates the administration of radiopharmaceuticals soon after preparation.

4.6.3. Erbium-169

Erbium-169 decays with a physical half-life of 9.4 days, emitting β⁻ particles with maximum energies of 342 keV (45%) and 351 keV (55%), as well as γ rays of 110.5 keV (0.0014%). The decay process results in the formation of stable ¹⁶⁹Tm. Beta particles emitted from ¹⁶⁹Er can travel up to 1 mm in soft tissue, with an average range of 0.2 to 0.3 mm. Since only a small amount of γ rays are emitted during decay, post-therapeutic scintigraphy is not effective for analyzing distribution. Erbium-169 can be produced through neutron activation of either natural Er (¹⁶⁸Er has 26.8% natural abundance) or enriched Er (in ¹⁶⁸Er) target in a nuclear reactor. However, since the thermal neutron capture cross-section of ¹⁶⁸Er is relatively low (σ = 2.74 b), irradiation of enriched ¹⁶⁸Er (in ⁶⁸Er) is necessary for efficient ¹⁶⁹Er production for RSV applications. Radiochemical processing involves the simple dissolution of the irradiated target in an acidic medium with gentle warming, allowing for efficient recovery of the desired radionuclide.

According to several reports, ¹⁶⁹Er has become the favored choice for RSV of digital joints such as MCP, PIP, and MTP [216–225]. Other joints that can be treated with ¹⁶⁹Er are DIP, TMT, the proximal tibiofibular joint, and CMC I [30]. [¹⁶⁹Er]Er-citrate or phosphate colloid has been evaluated in clinical trials for treating RA and osteoarthritis affecting small joints. Clinical studies have demonstrated its effectiveness in reducing pain, swelling, and inflammation in patients with chronic arthritis [220, 221]. Since ¹⁶⁹Er has minimal γ emission, attempts have also been made to investigate hybrid imaging agents or dual-labeled tracers to improve post-therapy monitoring [225].

The dosage and quantity of ¹⁶⁹Er activity given usually vary based on the particular dimensions of the joint that needs to be treated [225]. The recommended doses for different joints are as follows: 10–20 MBq for fingers, 20–40 MBq for wrist joints, and 20–80 MBq for thumbs. It is possible to apply the same mixture to multiple joints in a single session; however, the total dose of ¹⁶⁹Er administered must not exceed 750 MBq per session.

The utilization of ¹⁶⁹Er in RSV comes with both advantages and disadvantages. The key advantages of using ¹⁶⁹Er is its suitable β⁻ energy for treating digital joints, the feasibility of reactor-based production, and its 9.4-day half-life, which allows for efficient transportation of radiopharmaceuticals to users.

Despite these advantages, ¹⁶⁹Er also has drawbacks, including high production costs due to the moderate neutron activation cross-section of ¹⁶⁸Er and challenges in capturing post-therapeutic scintigraphy images because of its low γ-ray emission.

4.6.4. Phosphorus-32

Phosphorus-32 transforms into sulfur-32 through the emission of β⁻ particles with an energy of 1.71 MeV and a half-life of 14.3 days. The average depth of tissue penetration of β⁻ particles emitted during the decay of ³²P is 2.2 mm, with the deepest point reaching 7.9 mm. The production of ³²P in a nuclear reactor occurs through two distinct methods both extensively discussed in existing literature [226]. In brief, ³²P is primarily produced on a large scale using the ³²S(n,p)³²P reaction, which yields ³²P in a no-carrier-added (NCA) form. However, one of the major drawbacks of this method is its poor production yield. Alternatively, ³²P can also be produced through the thermal neutron activation of natural elemental phosphorus (³¹P, 100% naturally abundant). Although this method results in ³²P with low specific activity, it offers a simpler and more convenient approach for producing ³²P, suitable for RSV application.

The radioactive decay properties of ³²P make it particularly suitable for RSV procedures on knee joints, with recommended activity levels ranging between 37 and 54 MBq [227]. Numerous studies have investigated the application of ³²P for RSV of knee joints, as evident from the extensive body of literature [227–239].

The use of ³²P in RSV requires a careful assessment of its pros and cons, similar to any radionuclide. The positive aspects of ³²P encompass its cost-effective availability in NCA form, the appropriateness of its 1.71 MeV β⁻ emissions for treating inflamed large joints like the knee, its favorable chemical properties for radiolabeling, and the logistical benefits of easy shipment to locations far from the reactor production site due to its relatively extended physical half-life.

On the flip side, the hurdles linked with ³²P involve challenges such as the complexity of obtaining post-therapeutic scintigraphy images for dosimetric analysis because of the absence of γ rays suitable for monitoring, the risk of receiving additional bone dose from potential activity leakage from the joint, and the susceptibility to damage in articular cartilage and growth plates caused by the high-energy β⁻ radiation [239].

4.6.5. Holmium-166

Holmium-166 undergoes radioactive decay to produce stable Erbium-166 with a maximum β⁻ energy of 1.85 MeV (50.0%) and 1.77 MeV (48.7%), having a half-life of 26.83 h. Additionally, it releases 81 keV γ photons (6.7%), which can be utilized for external imaging purposes. The extent to which β⁻ particles penetrate the soft tissue is approximately 8.7 mm. ¹⁶⁶Ho has an energy deposition profile where most of its energy is concentrated in a small 2.1-mm-diameter area, with the rest of the energy spread out in a wider area ranging from 2.1 to 8.7 mm in diameter [240].

Holmium-166 is produced through the direct activation of natural holmium by neutrons. Natural holmium consists solely of ¹⁶⁵Ho, and exists in 100% natural abundance. The thermal activation cross-section of ¹⁶⁵Ho measures 64.7 b, making it conducive for the production of substantial quantities of ¹⁶⁶Ho with a relatively high specific activity by simple neutron irradiation. This method is cost-effective and feasible through the utilization of medium flux research reactors. The potential of ¹⁶⁶Ho in RSV has sparked significant interest and prompted various innovative research endeavors [163, 164, 240–246].

The primary benefits of utilizing ¹⁶⁶Ho include its moderate half-life, which reduces the hazards linked to potential leakage of the radionuclide from the joint cavity, sufficient range of β⁻-particles for synovial ablation, cost-effective accessibility, and the potential for simultaneous diagnostic monitoring due to the presence of 81 keV γ photons. However, the logistical difficulty of transporting ¹⁶⁶Ho-based RSV agents due to its physical half-life of 26.83 h could hinder their distribution to nuclear medicine centers far from reactors and restrict their overall use.

4.6.6. Samarium-153

Samarium-153 decays into ¹⁵³Eu by emitting β⁻ particles, which has a physical half-life of 46.27 h (1.93 days). The β⁻ particles released from the decay of ¹⁵³Sm have energies of 0.81 MeV (20%), 0.71 MeV (49%), and 0.64 MeV (30%). These particles have average and maximum penetration ranges of 0.8 mm and 3.1 mm in soft tissues, respectively. Additionally, ¹⁵³Sm emits 103 keV γ-photons with an abundance of 28%, facilitating imaging using conventional γ-ray cameras. The range of penetration demonstrated by ¹⁵³Sm is deemed sufficient for synovial ablation while ensuring the preservation of adjacent anatomical structures outside the joint, such as cartilage or bone, from damage. The depth of penetration of β⁻ particles originating from ¹⁵³Sm is not only conducive for performing synovial cauterization on joints of moderate size like the hip, shoulder, elbow, wrist, ankle, and subtalar joint, but also holds the potential to enhance the radionecrosis effect through the utilization of increased radioactivity levels.

Production of ¹⁵³Sm involves neutron irradiation of enriched ¹⁵²Sm targets in a nuclear reactor. This process triggers the ¹⁵²Sm(n,γ)¹⁵³Sm reaction, which has thermal and resonance neutron cross-sections of 210 and 3020 b, respectively. ¹⁵³Sm can be economically produced with high specific activity due to its significant thermal neutron capture cross-section. Several research studies utilizing ¹⁵³Sm in RSV have been documented in the contemporary literature [138, 168–170, 180, 247–251].

The key advantages of using Samarium-153 (¹⁵³Sm) include its optimal half-life, high thermal neutron capture cross-section for efficient production, and 103 keV γ emission for diagnostic imaging. Although ¹⁵³Sm has a β⁻ energy approximately 2.8 times lower than ⁹⁰Y, this limitation can be compensated by administering a higher dose of ¹⁵³Sm. This approach ensures an adequate therapeutic effect on the synovial tissue, a strategy supported by its high thermal neutron capture cross-section, which enables efficient production. The comparatively shorter half-life of ¹⁵³Sm (46.27 h) reduces the radiation risks associated with potential leakage of the radioisotope from the synovial cavity, ensuring safer application in therapeutic procedures.

While there is a certain appeal in using ¹⁵³Sm for RSV of medium-sized joints, it is not devoid of downsides and restrictions. The physical half-life of ¹⁵³Sm presents a logistical challenge for transporting radiopharmaceuticals to distant locations, and the need for an enriched ¹⁵²Sm target to produce ¹⁵³Sm renders it less cost-effective compared to ¹⁶⁶Ho. The relatively high γ abundance of around 28% poses a risk of collateral damage to surrounding healthy tissues.

4.6.7. Rhenium-186

Rhenium-186 decays into Osmium-186 (¹⁸⁶Os) by emitting β⁻ particles, with a physical half-life of 90 h. These β⁻ particles carry a maximum energy of 1.08 MeV and have a mean tissue penetration depth of 0.92 mm. Moreover, ¹⁸⁶Re releases γ photons at 137 keV (9.42%), which are ideal for scintigraphic imaging postprocedure. Its limited soft tissue penetration confines radiation exposure to structures near the joint cavity. The moderate energy β⁻ particles emitted by ¹⁸⁶Re make it suitable for RSV of medium-sized joints like the hip, shoulder, elbow, wrist, ankle, and subtalar joint. The 3.8 d half-life of ¹⁸⁶Re allows ample time for preparation, quality assurance (QA), and distribution of radiopharmaceuticals worldwide. The production of ¹⁸⁶Re in nuclear reactors worldwide via the ¹⁸⁵Re(n,γ)¹⁸⁶Re reaction yields a substantial specific activity, making it suitable for RSV applications. Rhenium-186, a non–bone-seeking radioisotope, is an excellent choice for RSV due to its nonresidualizing properties and lack of prolonged retention in the body or lymph nodes, even in cases of extra-articular leakage.

In Europe, commercially available ¹⁸⁶Re-labeled particles are used for RSV. The recommended activity levels for RSV with [¹⁸⁶Re]Re-sulfide colloid are specified for different joints. For the hip and shoulder joints, the range is 74–185 MBq; for the elbow joint, it is 74–111 MBq; for the wrist joint, it is 37–74 MBq; for the ankle joint, it is 74 MBq; and for the subtalar joint, the range is 37–74 MBq. When treating multiple joints in one session, the total activity administered should not surpass 370 MBq [252–257].

The utilization of ¹⁸⁶Re and the complexities in preparing radiolabeled particles for RSV have spurred fascinating research and innovative approaches [104, 154, 184, 249–257]. Like other radionuclides, ¹⁸⁶Re presents a range of advantages, disadvantages, and practical applications. The potential use of ¹⁸⁶Re in RSV holds great promise due to its efficient production logistics, optimal tissue penetration depth, and γ emission suitable for external imaging with a standard gamma camera. However, the need for enriched ¹⁸⁵Re target for ¹⁸⁶Re production leads to reduced cost-effectiveness compared to ¹⁶⁶Ho in RSV applications.

4.6.8. Rhenium-188

Rhenium-188 decays to ¹⁸⁸Os with a half-life of 16.9 h, emitting β⁻ particles with a maximum energy of 2.11 MeV and a tissue penetration depth of 3.5 mm. Moreover, it releases γ photons of 155 keV (15%). The β⁻ emission from ¹⁸⁸Re has sufficient energy to penetrate the thickened synovial membrane, allowing treatment of larger joints like the knee. The predominant 155 keV γ emissions enable scintigraphic imaging for therapeutic monitoring, leak detection, and dosage calculation. The half-life of ¹⁸⁸Re is suitable for preparing radiolabeled particles, QC studies, and safe therapeutic effects without residual harm. In comparison with ¹⁸⁶Re, ¹⁸⁸Re is preferred for RSV applications due to its availability in a NCA form from a ¹⁸⁸W/¹⁸⁸Re radionuclide generator in hospital radiopharmacies [258]. The long half-life of the parent radionuclide, ¹⁸⁸W, ensures generator functionality for several months. Rhenium’s versatile chemistry, featuring eight potential oxidation states, enables its binding to a wide range of microparticles with diverse properties, enhancing its adaptability for various medical applications [259]. The tissue penetration depth of ¹⁸⁸Re is equal to that of ⁹⁰Y, but its shorter half-life reduces radiation dose and minimizes leakage to nontarget organs.

The appealing aspects of utilizing ¹⁸⁸Re in RSV for large joint treatment include its ideal half-life, energetic β⁻ particles, detectable γ photons, and on-demand availability from a ¹⁸⁸W/¹⁸⁸Re generator. However, the primary challenge in the widespread use of ¹⁸⁸Re-based RSV agents is the cost-effective access to the ¹⁸⁸W/¹⁸⁸Re generator. The extensive use of ¹⁸⁸Re in RSV treatment highlights the significant clinical value of this radionuclide [152, 182, 260–275].

4.6.9. Lutetium-177

Lutetium-177, with a half-life of 6.7 d, undergoes decay to yield stable Hafnium-177 (¹⁷⁷Hf). In most cases, ¹⁷⁷Lu transitions to the ground state of ¹⁷⁷Hf, emitting β⁻ particles with a maximum energy of 0.497 MeV. Alternatively, in a smaller percentage of instances, it decays to excited states of ¹⁷⁷Hf, emitting β⁻ particles with energies of 0.384 and 0.176, 0.250, and 0.321 MeV above the ground state before returning to the ground state through photon emission. Throughout the decay process, ¹⁷⁷Lu emits low-energy γ photons at 113 and 208 keV, which help in scintigraphic imaging applications [276, 277].

Lutetium-177 can be produced through two different routes, namely, direct neutron activation, which involves irradiating a target of natural or enriched (in ¹⁷⁶Lu) lutetium oxide (Lu₂O₃) and indirect production, where enriched (in ¹⁷⁶ Yb) ytterbium oxide (Yb₂O₃) is irradiated, followed by radiochemical separation of ¹⁷⁷Lu from ytterbium isotopes. These two methods result in products with different specific activities and radionuclidic purities. Additionally, the cost of ¹⁷⁷Lu obtained from these methods varies significantly. Direct neutron activation of natural Lu₂O₃ is particularly advantageous due to the high thermal neutron capture cross-section of ¹⁷⁶Lu (σ_ther_mal = 2100 b). The specific activity achieved through this method is sufficient for the preparation of ¹⁷⁷Lu-based agents for RSV application. To ensure the RSV procedure remains cost-effective and accessible to a larger population, it is preferable to use carrier-added ¹⁷⁷Lu, which is relatively more affordable while still meeting the necessary therapeutic requirements. Detailed discussions on ¹⁷⁷Lu production methods are available in the contemporary literature sources [278–282].

Lutetium-177 emits β⁻ particles with a mean range of 670 μm, making it highly suitable for RSV procedures. This penetration depth is optimal for targeting the synovial tissue while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy structures, enhancing the safety and effectiveness of RSV treatments. The low-energy γ photon emission supports simultaneous scintigraphic imaging for joint evaluation, leakage analysis, and dosimetry purposes. Lutetium solely exists in the +3-oxidation state, simplifying its solution chemistry without redox complications. The chemistry of ¹⁷⁷Lu is adaptable for conjugation with various particles using standard radiolabeling techniques. The longer half-life of ¹⁷⁷Lu presents logistical advantages for transportation to distant nuclear medicine centers. However, the possibility of radiation exposure due to the accidental leakage of the instilled particles owing to its long half-life can be a drawback of using ¹⁷⁷Lu-based agents for RSV application.

The tremendous prospects associated with the use of ¹⁷⁷Lu have culminated in the development of numerous ¹⁷⁷Lu-based radiopharmaceuticals for RSV, which have been scrupulously evaluated for their efficacy, commencing with preliminary physicochemical suitability followed by in vitro and in vivo studies using animal models, and ultimately progressing to clinical settings. In recent decades, extensive research has been dedicated to developing different therapeutic agents utilizing ¹⁷⁷Lu [173, 174, 179, 283–289]. A variety of particles endowed with diverse chemical attributes have been utilized for radiolabeling, including tin colloid [289–292], chitosan [140], zirconia colloid [284], phytate complex [288], and hydroxyapatite [173, 174, 293]. Notably, tin colloid and hydroxyapatite have garnered the most attention and have been employed in the treatment of various joints, ranging from small to large, with notable therapeutic success.

4.6.10. Yttrium-90

With a half-life of 64.1 h, ⁹⁰Y transforms the stable Zirconium-90 (⁹⁰Zr) by emitting high-energy β⁻ radiation (maximum energy of 2.28 MeV and mean energy of 0.935 MeV). The β⁻ radiation releases around 80% of its energy within the initial 4–5 mm, making it an ideal radionuclide for intra-articular RSV of the knee joint and patients with thickened synovial tissue. The 64.1-h half-life proves to be convenient for radiolabeling, performing QC tests, and administering the preparation to patients. Throughout the treatment process, the ionization remains consistent enough to eliminate synovial tissue and reduce synovial fluid production. The ⁹⁰Sr/⁹⁰Y generator ensures immediate availability of ⁹⁰Y in NCA form either at the hospital or at a centralized radiopharmacy [294]. Additionally, ⁹⁰Y with sufficient specific activity for RSV procedure can be produced through direct neutron activation of natural yttrium target in a moderate-flux research reactor. Yttrium primarily exists in a tri-cationic state and can be easily combined with various particles using standard radiolabeling techniques.

The appeal of ⁹⁰Y in RSV primarily stems from its favorable nuclear decay properties, excellent chemical characteristics, and ease of availability through a radionuclide generator system. Despite its remarkable nuclear and chemical properties, ⁹⁰Y does have certain limitations. The lack of γ photon emission from ⁹⁰Y poses a difficulty in traditional scintigraphic imaging and assessing the distribution of radioactivity post-therapy. Any possible leakage from the joint could result in significant radiation doses to different organs such as the lymph nodes, liver, and kidneys.

Unquestionably, ⁹⁰Y emerges as the most commonly used radioisotope for treating hypertrophic and exudative knee synovitis in individuals dealing with various rheumatic diseases, including RA, osteoarthrosis, and peripheral spondyloarthropathies (psoriatic arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis) [32, 37, 105, 142, 143, 147–151, 178, 183, 295–322].

The characteristics, advantages, and limitations of therapeutic radionuclides used in RSV are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Characteristics, advantages, and limitations of therapeutic radionuclides used in radiation synovectomy.

Radionuclide	Half-life	Max. β⁻ energy (MeV)	γ-energy (keV)	Advantages/limitations
¹⁹⁸Au	2.7 d	0.96	412	Easy production and simple radiochemical processing, adequate half-life for formulation and supply of radiopharmaceuticals Presence of high-energy γ component, significant radiation exposure in case of leakage of particles

¹⁶⁵Dy	2.33 h	1.29	94	Short half-life mitigates the impact of possible leakage, presence of suitable energy γ photons in low abundance helps in imaging, straightforward production and simple radiochemical processing Short half-life presents logistical problem

¹⁶⁹Er	9.4 d	0.35	Negligible	Suitable β⁻ energy for treating digital joints, simple reactor-based production, long half-life helps in efficient distribution of radiopharmaceuticals Requirement of enriched target, negligible proportion of the γ component making post-therapeutic scintigraphy challenging

³²P	14.3 d	1.71	—	Availability in NCA form at a reasonable cost, relatively long half-life helps in easy distribution of radiopharmaceuticals Lack of detectable γ photons making post-therapeutic scintigraphy challenging, very high radiation dose to both articular cartilage and bone in case of leakage of particles

¹⁶⁶Ho	26.83 h	1.85	81	Comparatively shorter half-life mitigates the risks associated with the possible leakage of the particles, presence of low-abundance imageable γ photons helps in scintigraphy, cost-effective production Short half-life brings logistical challenges

¹⁵³Sm	46.27 h	0.81	103	Presence of suitable energy γ radiation helps in imaging, favorable chemistry for radiolabeling, easy production, and simple radiochemical processing Logistical challenges owing to not-so-long half-life, relatively high γ abundance (28%) poses a risk of collateral damage, requirement of enriched target increases the production cost

¹⁸⁶Re	90 h	1.08	137	Long half-life provides logistical advantages, presence of imageable γ photons helps in post-therapy scintigraphy, easy production in nuclear reactor Requirement of enriched ¹⁸⁵Re target, complex chemistry of Re in comparison with that of trivalent lanthanides

¹⁸⁸Re	16.9 h	2.11	155	Availability on-demand in NCA form from ¹⁸⁸W/¹⁸⁸Re generator, presence of suitable energy γ protons for post-therapy imaging Intricate chemistry compared to that of trivalent lanthanides, availability, and cost of ¹⁸⁸W/¹⁸⁸Re generator

¹⁷⁷Lu	6.7 d	0.49	208	Relatively longer half-life helps in the distribution of radiopharmaceuticals, possibility of post-therapy imaging due to the presence of low-energy γ photons, favorable chemistry, easy production Possibility of radiation exposure in case of leakage of particles

⁹⁰Y	64.1 h	2.28	—	Relatively longer half-life provides logistical advantages, availability on-demand in NCA form from ⁹⁰Sr/⁹⁰Y generator, favorable chemistry Absence of γ photons, significant radiation doses in case of leakage of the particles

5. Limitations of RSV

Although RSV is a minimally invasive procedure with multiple advantages, it also has several limitations:

•
RSV is a sophisticated medical procedure that requires a multidisciplinary approach [38]. Its success heavily depends on the availability of a hospital nuclear pharmacy and a specialized team that includes a rheumatologist, orthopedic specialists, radiologist, nuclear medicine physician, clinical hematologist, and physiotherapist.
•
RSV is not a universal treatment for all inflamed joints and its applicability depends on the specific joint pathologies of each patient [323]. A thorough understanding of the pathophysiology of synoviopathy is crucial, as the treatment’s efficacy is influenced by factors such as the severity of synovitis, the intensity of the inflammatory response, the stage of arthrosis, and the overall level of systemic inflammation.
•
The response to RSV is not immediate but follows a lag phase that can extend for several weeks to months. Larger joints typically respond more quickly than smaller ones, with notable improvement in the knee joint observed within 4 to 6 weeks, whereas interphalangeal joints may take up to 4 to 6 months [38].
•
If there is no significant response, additional injections are not recommended after two failed treatments, ensuring a minimum interval of 6 months between the administrations. Failure to achieve efficacy after two consecutive RSV procedures serves as a contraindication for further radionuclide- based therapies [324].
•
Ensuring the success of the treatment requires the availability of the necessary radioisotope in the required quantity at the time of therapy, posing an additional challenge.
•
Although RSV is an outpatient procedure that does not require hospitalization, post-treatment mismanagement and challenges in patient self-care have emerged as significant obstacles [325].
•
Strict radiation safety regulations require the availability of specialized facilities and trained personnel.
•
Despite its numerous advantages, RSV remains underutilized due to limited accessibility.

6. Regulatory Issues of Radiopharmaceuticals Used in RSV for Clinical Use

No conversation concerning RSV can be considered comprehensive without addressing the intricate realm of regulatory matters. The regulatory framework stands as the pivotal element influencing the practical application of novel RSV agents, consequently, fostering innovation. While the development of new radiolabeled microparticles for RSV is crucial, their advancement and clinical application may be hindered by complex legal and regulatory challenges. Even though there are positive advancements, there is still a long road to travel before new radiolabeled microparticles can be easily incorporated into RSV for regular clinical use. Success in this endeavor depends on excellence at every stage of development, from preclinical research to regulatory approval and market accessibility.

The utilization of radionuclides in RSV is classified as an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) due to its role as a foundational component for making radiolabeled microparticles intended for human use. Consequently, the deployment of radionuclides and radiolabeled microparticles in RSV falls under the purview of numerous national and international guidelines, regulations, and statutes. Beyond adhering to radionuclide specifications, the production protocols for radiolabeled microparticles must strictly conform to the tenets of current good manufacturing practice (cGMP), which delineates the fundamental criteria for clinical utilization. The enforcement of cGMP aims to safeguard patients from potential risks arising from inadequate safety and quality standards, while also fostering uniformity in the application of regulatory protocols. Compliance with regulations requires meticulous planning of the production process and the establishment of a robust quality management system. This includes adherence to cGMP standards, QA, QC, lifecycle management, and risk mitigation measures. Additionally, it is essential to meet the quality and purity standards set for radiolabeled microparticles.

The guidelines put in place by regulatory bodies for the production and acceptance of radiolabeled microparticles must be meticulously recorded in a Drug Master File (DMF). Approved rules outline the manufacturing of radionuclides used as an API following cGMP, as specified in the Code of Federal Regulations. Key elements of cGMP include the exact definition and careful management of production procedures for radiolabeled microparticles, ensuring uniformity and compliance with approved standards. A dedicated department should oversee QA and QC, either through separate units or a single team or individual, depending on the organization’s size and structure. Importantly, critical phases of the formulation processes for radiolabeled microparticles and significant changes in processes must undergo comprehensive validation. Adequate staffing of well-trained personnel, suitable facilities, proper equipment, approved procedures, and secure storage and transportation amenities are also imperative for maintaining operational efficiency.

When engaged in the production of radiolabeled microparticles, it is essential to adhere to the requirements outlined in the “Guidelines on Good Radiopharmacy Practice” and “Guidance on Current Good Radiopharmacy Practice (cGRPP).” Submission of a dossier for each batch of radiolabeled microparticles before distribution is a prerequisite. Proper measures must be implemented to ensure the storage and handling of radiolabeled microparticles in order to maintain the necessary quality throughout their shelf-life. The analysis of radionuclides used in radiolabeling and microparticles should adhere to pharmacopeia standards and regulatory requirements, with the exception of sterility and pyrogen tests, which are performed on batch samples.

Manufacturers involved in the consistent production of radiolabeled microparticles must satisfy pharmaceutical GMP regulations and typically hold a license from a Nuclear Regulatory Authority (NRA). Manufacturers are required to show that the facility can protect health and reduce the chances of harm to people or property. Compliance with radioactive material handling, radiation protection programs, and management procedures is also required. When transporting radiolabeled microparticles, different regulations apply compared to regular pharmaceutical components. National and international authorities have established specific guidelines for the safe transportation of radioactive materials from the manufacturer to the end user.

7. Conclusion and Future Outlook

This review presents a thorough perspective on RSV, spanning from basic exploration to practical application across a wide range of platforms. The extensive array of references highlighted in this review indicates the rapid evolution of RSV, with ongoing exploration and the emergence of promising radiolabeled microparticles. These advancements are set to enable the development of innovative radiolabeled microparticles with unique properties, catering to both current and future medical needs. Radiopharmaceutical scientists must evaluate different strategies to ensure a stable and dependable supply of radiolabeled microparticles for immediate and long-term demands in the realm of RSV.

The success of RSV depends not only on constant improvements in using new radionuclides, but also on choosing various types of microparticles designed for different joints to achieve positive therapeutic results. The implementation of RSV with new radionuclides and microparticles also demands expertise in radiolabeling techniques. Despite the rapid advancements in treatment methods and the fast pace of innovation offering promising options, successfully integrating these breakthroughs into clinical practice for RSV requires a blend of expertise, adaptability, and artistic creativity. The essence of this artistic skill lies in the ability to produce next-generation radiolabeled microparticles for RSV that can meet the growing therapeutic needs.

Although the advancement of RSV through emerging radionuclides and microparticles shows great potential, securing regulatory approval for radiolabeled microparticles is essential for clinical application. The emphasis on the quality of radiolabeled microparticles is particularly evident, as not only must the radionuclide adhere to stringent standards, but the radiolabeled microparticle must also satisfy established regulatory requirements. Any new radiolabeled microparticles must be tailored to align with local laws, regulations, and institutional guidelines.

The current method of utilizing radiopharmaceuticals for RSV in nuclear medicine facilities is poised to shift, with future distribution likely to be handled by centralized radiopharmacies established to meet cGMP standards. Ensuring cGMP compliance for radiopharmaceuticals intended for RSV involves a strong emphasis on product quality, operational systems, validation, and production documentation. The accuracy and completeness of production records are highly valued by regulatory bodies. The trend in radiopharmaceuticals for RSV is shifting toward user-centric design, prioritizing simplicity, and ease of use, rather than requiring users to adapt to complex procedures.

Automating the production process is a straightforward approach to meeting GMP standards while ensuring consistent product quality. It enhances productivity, maintains quality uniformity, minimizes radiation exposure for employees, reduces human errors, and enables comprehensive record-keeping of all activities. This automation also allows for the comprehensive collection of production records in line with cGMP standards. Despite the numerous benefits offered by automated systems, there are still specific unplanned manual tasks that need to be done. Accelerating the integration of automation in production technology is crucial to lay a strong foundation for future progressions.

In conclusion, there is growing interest in the use of value-added radiolabeled microparticles for RSV. While efforts have been made to accelerate product development, a gap remains between laboratory research and clinical application, despite academic initiatives fostering collaboration. Bridging this gap requires coordinated efforts among scientists, clinicians, hospitals, industry leaders, and regulatory authorities to overcome challenges related to production technology and compliance. Continued commitment from all stakeholders is crucial to securing a promising future for RSV in nuclear medicine, building on its past successes and current advancements.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Funding

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) is a constituent unit of Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), Government of India, and all research activities carried out at the Centre are fully funded by the Government of India.

Acknowledgments

Dr. Ashutosh Dash expresses his gratitude to the Department of Atomic Energy, India, for honoring him with the Raja Ramanna Fellowship, allowing him to continue his academic activities at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India.

Open Research

Data Availability Statement

All data related to this study are included within the manuscript.

References

1 Turesson C. and Matteson E. L., Management of Extra-Articular Disease Manifestations in Rheumatoid Arthritis, Current Opinion in Rheumatology. (2004) 16, no. 3, 206–211, https://doi.org/10.1097/00002281-200405000-00007, 2-s2.0-1942467801.
10.1097/00002281-200405000-00007
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
2 Scott D. L., Shipley M., Dawson A., Edwards S., Symmons D. P., and Woolf A. D., The Clinical Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis and Osteoarthritis, Strategies for Improving Clinical Effectiveness, Rheumatology. (1998) 37, no. 5, 546–554, https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/37.5.546.
10.1093/rheumatology/37.5.546
CAS Google Scholar
3 Firestein G. S., G. S. Firestein, R. C. Budd, E. D. Harris et al., Etiology and Pathogenesis of Rheumatoid Arthritis, Kelley’s Textbook of Rheumatology, 2008, 8th edition, Saunders Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA, 1035–1086.
Google Scholar
4 Cooper G. S. and Stroehla B. C., The Epidemiology of Autoimmune Diseases, Autoimmunity Reviews. (2003) 2, no. 3, 119–125, https://doi.org/10.1016/s1568-9972(03)00006-5, 2-s2.0-0141819043.
10.1016/S1568-9972(03)00006-5
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
5 Harris E. D. J. and Firestein G. S., G. S. Firestein, R. C. Budd, E. D. J. Harris et al., Clinical Features of Rheumatoid Arthritis, Kelley’s Textbook of Rheumatology, 2008, 8th edition, Saunders Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA, 1087–1118.
Google Scholar
6 Wasko M. C. M., Comorbid Conditions in Patients With Rheumatic Diseases: An Update, Current Opinion in Rheumatology. (2004) 16, no. 2, 109–113, https://doi.org/10.1097/00002281-200403000-00006, 2-s2.0-1442348161.
10.1097/00002281-200403000-00006
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
7 Pineau C. A., Urowitz M. B., Fortin P. J., Ibanez D., and Gladman D. D., Osteoporosis in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: Factors Associated With Referral for Bone Mineral Density Studies, Prevalence of Osteoporosis and Factors Associated With Reduced Bone Density, Lupus. (2004) 13, no. 6, 436–441, https://doi.org/10.1191/0961203303lu1036oa, 2-s2.0-3142685316.
10.1191/0961203303lu1036oa
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
8 Manzi S., Meilahn E. N., Rairie J. E. et al., Age-Specific Incidence Rates of Myocardial Infarction and Angina in Women With Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: Comparison With the Framingham Study, American Journal of Epidemiology. (1997) 145, no. 5, 408–415, https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009122, 2-s2.0-0031052874.
10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009122
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
9 Stein H. and Duthie R. B., The Pathogenesis of Chronic Haemophilic Arthropathy, The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. (1981) 63, no. 4, 601–609, https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620x.63b4.7298694.
10.1302/0301-620x.63b4.7298694
Web of Science® Google Scholar
10 Rodriguez-Merchan E. C., Pathogenesis, Early Diagnosis, and Prophylaxis for Chronic Hemophilic Synovitis, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research. (1997) 343, 6–11, https://doi.org/10.1097/00003086-199710000-00003.
10.1097/00003086-199710000-00003
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
11 Rodriguez-Merchan E. C., Effects of Hemophilia on Articulations of Children and Adults, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research. (1996) 328, 7–13, https://doi.org/10.1097/00003086-199607000-00003.
10.1097/00003086-199607000-00003
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
12 Rodriguez-Merchan E. C., Magallon M., Galindo E., and Lopez-Cabarcos C., Hemophilic Synovitis of the Knee and Elbow, Clinical orthopaedics. (1997) 343, 47–53.
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
13 Alsousou J., Thompson M., Hulley P., Noble A., and Willett K., The Biology of Platelet-Rich Plasma and Its Application in Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery: A Review of the Literature, The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery British Volume. (2009) 91, no. 8, 987–996, https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620x.91b8.22546, 2-s2.0-68249108576.
10.1302/0301-620x.91b8.22546
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
14 Busch M., Wyly J., Abshire T., and Dunn A., Radionuclide Synovectomy for Hemophilic Arthropathy: A Comprehensive Review of Safety and Efficacy and Recommendation for a Standardized Treatment Protocol, Thromb Haemost. (2002) 87, no. 03, 383–393, https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0037-1613015.
10.1055/s-0037-1613015
PubMed Google Scholar
15 Zink A., Listing J., Ziemer S., Zeidler H., and German Collaborative Arthritis Centres, Practice Variation in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis Among German Rheumatologists, Journal of Rheumatology. (2001) 28, no. 10, 2201–2208.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
16 Braun J. and Sieper J., Overview of the Use of the Anti-TNF Agent Infliximab in Chronic Inflammatory Diseases, Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy. (2003) 3, no. 1, 141–168, https://doi.org/10.1517/eobt.3.1.141.20951.
10.1517/14712598.3.1.141
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
17 Jansen G., Scheper R. J., and Dijkmans B. A., Multidrug Resistance Proteins in Rheumatoid Arthritis, Role in Disease-Modifying Antirheumatic Drug Efficacy and Inflammatory Processes: An Overview, Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology. (2003) 32, no. 6, 325–336, https://doi.org/10.1080/03009740310004333, 2-s2.0-0842265676.
10.1080/03009740310004333
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
18 Al-Jarallah K., Shehab D., Moussa M. A. A., and Abraham M., Validation of the Arabic Version of the Early Inflammatory Arthritis Detection Tool, Medical Principles and Practice. (2013) 22, no. 5, 449–452, https://doi.org/10.1159/000351566, 2-s2.0-84884287202.
10.1159/000351566
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
19 Ishido C., Über die Wirkung des Radiothoriums auf die Gelenke, Strahlentherapie. (1924) 15, 537–544.
Google Scholar
20 Fellinger K. and Schmid J., Local Therapy of Rheumatics Diseases, Wiener Zeitschrift für Innere Medizin. (1952) 33, no. 9, 351–363.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
21 Delbarre F., Cayla J., Menkes C., Aignan M., Roucayrol J. C., and Ingrand J., Synoviorthesis With Radioisotopes, La Presse médicale. (1968) 76, no. 22, 1045–1050.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
22 Delbarre F., Le Go A., Menkes C., and Aignan M., Double Blind Statistical Study of Therapeutic Effect of a Radioactivity Yttrium (⁹⁰Y) Charged Colloid on Rheumatoid Arthritis of the Knee, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de L’académie des Science. (1974) 279, 1051–1054.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
23 Ingrand J., Characteristics of Radioisotopes for Intra-Articular Therapy, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (1973) 32, 3–9, https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.32.suppl.3, 2-s2.0-0015711494.
10.1136/ard.32.Suppl.3
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
24 Mödder G., H. J. Biersack and L. M. Freeman, Radiation Synovectomy, Clinical Nuclear Medicine, 2007, Springer Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, 512–518.
10.1007/978-3-540-28026-2_29
Google Scholar
25 Ćwikła J., Żbikowski P., Kwiatkowska B., Buscombe J. R., and Sudoł-Szopińska I., Radiosynovectomy in Rheumatic Diseases, Journal of Ultrasonography. (2014) 14, no. 58, 241–251, https://doi.org/10.15557/jou.2014.0024.
10.15557/jou.2014.0024
PubMed Google Scholar
26 Ozcan Z., Radiosynovectomy in Hemophilic Synovitis, Malecular Imaging and Radionuclide Therapy. (2014) 23, no. 1, 1–4, https://doi.org/10.4274/mirt.49369.
10.4274/Mirt.49369
PubMed Google Scholar
27 Schneider P., Farahati J., and Reiners C., Radiosynovectomy in Rheumatology, Orthopedics, and Hemophilia, Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (2005) 46, no. 1, 48S–54S.
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
28 Kitonyi G. W. and Kitonyi J. M., Radiation Synovectomy: Treatment Option for Haemophilia Patients With Chronic Haemarthrosis: A Review, East African Medical Journal. (2009) 86, no. 12 Suppl, S71–S75, https://doi.org/10.4314/eamj.v86i12.62907.
10.4314/eamj.v86i12.62907
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
29 Deutsch E. A., Brodack J. W., and Deutsch K. F., Radiation Synovectomy Revisited, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1993) 20, no. 11, 1113–1127, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00173494, 2-s2.0-0027360056.
10.1007/BF00173494
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
30 Karavida N. and Notopoulos A., Radiation Synovectomy: an Effective Alternative Treatment for Inflamed Small Joints, Hippokratia. (2010) 14, no. 1, 22–27.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
31 Zuderman L., Liepe K., Zophel K., Andreeff M., Kotzerke J., and Luboldt W., Radiosynoviorthesis (RSO): Influencing Factors and Therapy Monitoring, Annals of Nuclear Medicine. (2008) 22, no. 9, 735–741, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12149-008-0167-7, 2-s2.0-57049083624.
10.1007/s12149-008-0167-7
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
32 van der Zant F. M., Boer R. O., Moolenburgh J. D., Jahangier Z. N., Bijlsma J. W., and Jacobs J. W., Radiation Synovectomy with ⁹⁰Yttrium, ¹⁸⁶Rhenium and ¹⁶⁹Erbium: a Systematic Literature Review With Meta-Analyses, Clinical & Experimental Rheumatology. (2009) 27, no. 1, 130–139.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
33 Siegel H. J., Luck J. V., and Siegel M. E., Advances in Radionuclide Therapeutics in Orthopaedics, Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. (2004) 12, no. 1, 55–64, https://doi.org/10.5435/00124635-200401000-00008, 2-s2.0-2442450332.
10.5435/00124635-200401000-00008
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
34 Pirich C., Schwameis E., Bernecker P. et al., Influence of Radiation Synovectomy on Articular Cartilage, Synovial Thickness and Enhancement as Evidenced by MRI in Patients With Chronic Synovitis, Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1999) 40, no. 8, 1277–1284.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
35 Das B. K., Moedder G., Pradhan A. K., and Shukla A. K., Concept of Radiosynovectomy: A Novel Approach in the Treatment of Joint Disorders, Indian Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (2004) 19, no. 1, 1–5.
Google Scholar
36 Das B. K., Role of Radiosynovectomy in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis and Hemophilic Arthropathies, Biomedical Imaging and Intervention Journal. (2007) 3, no. 4, https://doi.org/10.2349/biij.3.4.e45, 2-s2.0-57149107998.
10.2349/biij.3.4.e45
PubMed Google Scholar
37 Miszczyk M., Jochymek B., Miszczyk L. et al., The Results of 394 Consecutive Cases of Knee Joint Radiation Synovectomy (Radiosynoviorthesis) Using ⁹⁰Y, Annals of Nuclear Medicine. (2020) 34, no. 2, 94–101, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12149-019-01418-w.
10.1007/s12149-019-01418-w
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
38 Chojnowski M. M., Felis-Giemza A., and Kobylecka M., Radionuclide Synovectomy-Essentials for Rheumatologists, Reumatologia. (2016) 54, no. 3, 108–116, https://doi.org/10.5114/reum.2016.61210, 2-s2.0-84979279818.
10.5114/reum.2016.61210
PubMed Google Scholar
39 van der Zant F. M., Knol R. J., and Broos W. A., Radiosynoviorthesis: Almost Seventy Years of Experience but Still Somewhat Fameless, The Quarterly Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging. (2022) 66, no. 4, 293–303, https://doi.org/10.23736/s1824-4785.22.03470-7.
10.23736/S1824-4785.22.03470-7
PubMed Google Scholar
40 Mapp P. I. and Revell P. A., Fibronectin Production by Synovial Intimal Cells, Rheumatology International. (1985) 5, 229–237, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00541341, 2-s2.0-0022368528.
10.1007/BF00541341
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
41 Matsubara T., Spycher M. A., Ruttner J. R., and Fehr K., The Ultrastructural Localization of Fibronectin in the Lining Layer of Rheumatoid Arthritis Synovium: The Synthesis of Fibronectin by Type B Lining Cells, Rheumatology International. (1983) 3, no. 2, 75–79, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00541148, 2-s2.0-0020965708.
10.1007/BF00541148
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
42 Yielding K. L., Tomkins G. M., and Bunim J. J., Synthesis of Hyaluronic Acid by Human Synovial Tissue Slices, Science. (1957) 125, no. 3261, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.125.3261.1300, 2-s2.0-0001158554.
10.1126/science.125.3261.1300
PubMed Google Scholar
43 Kaplan L. A., Pesce A. J., and Kazmierczak S. C., Extravascular Biological Fluids, Clinical Chemistry: Theory, Analysis, Correlation, 2003, 4th edition, Mosby, St. Louis, 784–785.
Google Scholar
44 Pavlovich R. I. and Lubowitz J., Current Concepts in Synovial Tissue of the Knee Joint, Orthopedics. (2008) 31, no. 2, 160–165, https://doi.org/10.3928/01477447-20080201-24, 2-s2.0-41349091881.
10.3928/01477447-20080201-24
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
45 Grossman J. and Brahn E., Rheumatoid Arthritis: Current Clinical and Research Directions, Journal of Women’s Health. (1997) 6, no. 6, 627–638, https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.1997.6.627, 2-s2.0-0031439215.
10.1089/jwh.1997.6.627
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
46 Camussi G. and Lupia E., The Future Role of Anti-Tumour Necrosis Factor (TNF) Products in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis, Drugs. (1998) 55, no. 5, 613–620, https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199855050-00001, 2-s2.0-0031946293.
10.2165/00003495-199855050-00001
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
47 Pisetsky D. S. and Ward M. M., Advancesin the Treatment of Inflammatory Arthritis, Best Practice & Research Clinical Rheumatology. (2012) 26, no. 2, 251–261, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.berh.2012.03.001, 2-s2.0-84863886860.
10.1016/j.berh.2012.03.001
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
48 Mori M., A Review of Knee Joint Synovectomy in Rheumatoid Arthritis With Theoretical and Technical Considerations, Annales Chirurgiae et Gynaecologiae-Supplementum. (1985) 198, 40–47.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
49 Ishikawa H., Ohno O., and Hirohata K., Long-Term Results of Synovectomy in Rheumatoid Patients, The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery. (1986) 68, no. 2, 198–205, https://doi.org/10.2106/00004623-198668020-00004, 2-s2.0-0022596706.
10.2106/00004623-198668020-00004
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
50 McEwen C., Multicenter Evaluation of Synovectomy in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis. Report of Results at the End of Five Years, Journal of Rheumatology. (1988) 15, no. 5, 765–769.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
51 Montane I., McCollough N. C., and Lian E. C., Synovectomy of the Knee for Hemophilic Arthropathy, The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery. (1986) 68, no. 2, 210–216, https://doi.org/10.2106/00004623-198668020-00006, 2-s2.0-0022611314.
10.2106/00004623-198668020-00006
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
52 Rydholm U., Elborgh R., Ranstam J., Schroder A., Svantesson H., and Lidgren L., Synovectomy of the Knee in Juvenile Chronic Arthritis. A Retrospective, Consecutive Follow-Up Study, The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. British volume. (1986) 68, no. 2, 223–228, https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620x.68b2.3958007.
10.1302/0301-620x.68b2.3958007
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
53 Ogilvie-Harris D. J., McLean J., and Zarnett M. E., Pigmented Villonodular Synovitis of the Knee. The Results of Total Arthroscopic Synovectomy, Partial, Arthroscopic Synovectomy, and Arthroscopic Local Excision, The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery. (1992) 74, no. 1, 119–123, https://doi.org/10.2106/00004623-199274010-00015, 2-s2.0-0026606260.
10.2106/00004623-199274010-00015
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
54 Zvijac J. E., Lau A. C., Hechtman K. S., Uribe J. W., Tjin-A-Tsoi E. W., and Tsoi E. W., Arthroscopic Treatment of Pigmented Villonodular Synovitis of the Knee, Arthroscopy: The Journal of Arthroscopic & Related Surgery. (1999) 15, no. 6, 613–617, https://doi.org/10.1053/ar.1999.v15.015061, 2-s2.0-0032888531.
10.1053/ar.1999.v15.015061
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
55 Anderson R. J., The Orthopedic Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis, Arthritis Care & Research. (1996) 9, no. 3, 223–228, https://doi.org/10.1002/1529-0131(199606)9:3%3C223::aid-anr1790090311%3E3.0.co;2-2.
10.1002/1529-0131(199606)9:3<223::AID-ANR1790090311>3.0.CO;2-2
CAS Google Scholar
56 Highgenboten C. L., Arthroscopic Synovectomy, Orthopedic Clinics of North America. (1982) 13, no. 2, 399–405, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0030-5898(20)30722-7.
10.1016/S0030-5898(20)30722-7
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
57 Tyler W. K., Vidal A. F., Williams R. J., and Healey J. H., Pigmented Villonodular Synovitis, Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. (2006) 14, no. 6, 376–385, https://doi.org/10.5435/00124635-200606000-00007, 2-s2.0-33750716508.
10.5435/00124635-200606000-00007
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
58 Chin K. R., Barr S. J., Winalski C., Zurakowski D., and Brick G. W., Treatment of Advanced Primary and Recurrent Diffuse Pigmented Villonodular Synovitis of the Knee, Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery American Volume. (2002) 84, no. 12, 2192–2202, https://doi.org/10.2106/00004623-200212000-00011, 2-s2.0-0036898729.
10.2106/00004623-200212000-00011
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
59 Cruz-Esteban C. and Wilke W. S., Non-Surgical Synovectomy, Baillière’s Clinical Rheumatology. (1995) 9, no. 4, 787–801, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0950-3579(05)80314-0, 2-s2.0-0028862790.
10.1016/S0950-3579(05)80314-0
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
60 von Reis G. and Swensson A., Intra-Articular Injections of Osmic Acid in Painful Joint Affections, Acta Medica Scandinavica. (1951) 139, no. S259, 27–32, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0954-6820.1951.tb13229.x, 2-s2.0-84977687908.
10.1111/j.0954-6820.1951.tb13229.x
Google Scholar
61 Anttinen J. and Oka M., Intra-articular Triamcinolone Hexacetonide and Osmic Acid in Persistent Synovitis of the Knee, Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology. (1975) 4, no. 3, 125–128, https://doi.org/10.3109/03009747509165441, 2-s2.0-0016716733.
10.3109/03009747509165441
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
62 Bontoux D., Alcalay M., Reboux J. F., and Puthon A., Synoviortheses du Genou par l’acide Osmique, Revue du Rhumatisme et des Maladies Osteo-Articulaires. (1978) 45, no. 2, 101–105.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
63 Delcambre B., Duquesnoy B., Deremau J. J., Siame J. L., and Cocheteux P., Results More Than Five Years After Osmic Acid Synoviorthesis of the Rheumatoid Knee, Rev Rhum Mal Osteoartic. (1982) 49, 537–543.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
64 Kajander A. and Ruotsi A., The Effects of Intra-Articular Osmic Acid on Rheumatoid Joint Affections, Annales Medicinae Internae Fenniae. (1967) 57, 87–91.
Google Scholar
65 Martio J., Isomäki H., Heikkola T., and Laine V., The Effect of Intra-Articular Osmic Acid in Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis, Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology. (1972) 1, 5–8, https://doi.org/10.3109/03009747209102985, 2-s2.0-0015440959.
10.3109/03009747209102985
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
66 Nissila M., Isomaki H., Koota K., Larsen A., and Raunio K., Osmic Acid in Rheumatoid Synovitis. A Controlled Study, Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology. (1977) 6, no. 2, 111–112, https://doi.org/10.3109/03009747709095431, 2-s2.0-0017653740.
10.3109/03009747709095431
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
67 Slobodin G., Rosner I., Boulman N., and Rozenbaum M., Osmic Acid Synovectomy in the Era of Biologics, Rheumatology International. (2008) 28, no. 3, 303–304, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00296-007-0448-9, 2-s2.0-37249018991.
10.1007/s00296-007-0448-9
PubMed Google Scholar
68 Niculescu D., Tomescu E., Ionescu C. et al., Ultrastructural Changes in Cartilage After Intra-Articular Administration of Osmium Tetroxide and the Sodium Salts of Fish Oil Fatty Acids (Varicocid), Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology. (1976) 5, no. 3, 133–140, https://doi.org/10.3109/03009747609165451, 2-s2.0-0017093789.
10.3109/03009747609165451
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
69 Molho P., Verrier P., Stieltjes N. et al., A Retrospective Study on Chemical and Radioactive Synovectomy in Severe Haemophilia Patients With Recurrent Haemarthrosis, Haemophilia. (1999) 5, no. 2, 115–123, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2516.1999.00287.x, 2-s2.0-0032960258.
10.1046/j.1365-2516.1999.00287.x
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
70 Pelletier J. P., Mineau F., Raynauld J. P., Woessner J. F., Gunja-Smith Z., and Martel-Pelletier J., Intraarticular Injections With Methylprednisolone Acetate Reduce Osteoarthritic Lesions in Parallel with Chondrocyte Stromelysin Synthesis in Experimental Osteoarthritis, Arthritis & Rheumatism. (1994) 37, no. 3, 414–423, https://doi.org/10.1002/art.1780370316, 2-s2.0-0028258012.
10.1002/art.1780370316
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
71 Keagy R. D. and Keim H. A., Intra-Articular Steroid Therapy: Repeated Use in Patients With Chronic Arthritis, The American Journal of the Medical Sciences. (1967) 253, no. 1, 45–51, https://doi.org/10.1097/00000441-196701000-00010, 2-s2.0-0014039689.
10.1097/00000441-196701000-00010
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
72 Gaffney K., Ledingham J., and Perry J., Intra-Articular Triamcinolone Hexacetonide in Knee Osteoarthritis: Factors Influencing the Clinical Response, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (1995) 54, no. 5, 379–381, https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.54.5.379, 2-s2.0-0028928330.
10.1136/ard.54.5.379
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
73 Raynauld J. P., Clinical Trials: Impact of Intraarticular Steroid Injections on the Progression of Knee Osteoarthritis, Osteoarthritis and Cartilage. (1999) 7, no. 3, 348–349, https://doi.org/10.1053/joca.1998.0193, 2-s2.0-0033136266.
10.1053/joca.1998.0193
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
74 Raynauld J. P., Buckland-Wright C., Ward R. et al., Safety and Efficacy of Long-Term Intraarticular Steroid Injections in Osteoarthritis of the Knee: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial, Arthritis & Rheumatism. (2003) 48, no. 2, 370–377, https://doi.org/10.1002/art.10777, 2-s2.0-0037331298.
10.1002/art.10777
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
75 Balch H. W., Gibson J. M., El-Ghobarey A. F., Bain L. S., and Lynch M. P., Repeated Corticosteroid Injections Into Knee Joints, Rheumatology. (1977) 16, no. 3, 137–140, https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/16.3.137, 2-s2.0-0017753725.
10.1093/rheumatology/16.3.137
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
76 Dieppe P. A., Sathapatayavongs B., Jones H. E., Bacon P. A., and Ring E. F., Intra-Articular Steroids in Osteoarthritis, Rheumatology. (1980) 19, no. 4, 212–217, https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/19.4.212, 2-s2.0-0019205483.
10.1093/rheumatology/19.4.212
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
77 Friedman D. M. and Moore M. E., The Efficacy of Intraarticular Steroids in Osteoarthritis: a Double-Blind Study, Journal of Rheumatology. (1980) 7, no. 6, 850–856.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
78 Valtonen E. J., Clinical Comparison of Triamcinolonehexacetonide and Betamethasone in the Treatment of Osteoarthrosis of the Knee-Joint, Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology-Supplement. (1981) 41, no. suppl, 1–7.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
79 Sambrook P. N., Champion G. D., Browne C. D. et al., Corticosteroid Injection for Osteoarthritis of the Knee: Peripatellar Compared to Intra-Articular Route, Clinical & Experimental Rheumatology. (1989) 7, no. 6, 609–613.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
80 Cederlöf S. and Jonson G., Intraarticular Prednisolone Injection for Osteoarthritis of the Knee. A Double Blind Test With Placebo, Acta Chirurgica Scandinavica. (1966) 132, no. 5, 532–537.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
81 Towheed T. E. and Hochberg M. C., A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials of Pharmacological Therapy in Osteoarthritis of the Knee, With an Emphasis on Trial Methodology, Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism. (1997) 26, no. 5, 755–770, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0049-0172(97)80043-1, 2-s2.0-0030939875.
10.1016/S0049-0172(97)80043-1
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
82 Jones A. and Doherty M., Intra-Articular Corticosteroids Are Effective in Osteoarthritis but There Are No Clinical Predictors of Response, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (1996) 55, no. 11, 829–832, https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.55.11.829, 2-s2.0-0029804929.
10.1136/ard.55.11.829
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
83 Altman R. D. and Moskowitz R., Intraarticular Sodium Hyaluronate (Hyalgan) in the Treatment of Patients With Osteoarthritis of the Knee: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Hyalgan Study Group, Journal of Rheumatology. (1998) 25, no. 11, 2203–2212.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
84 Huskisson E. C. and Donnelly S., Hyaluronic Acid in the Treatment of Osteoarthritis of the Knee, Rheumatology. (1999) 38, no. 7, 602–607, https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/38.7.602, 2-s2.0-0032746754.
10.1093/rheumatology/38.7.602
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
85 Lo G. H., LaValley M., McAlindon T., and Felson D. T., Intra-Articular Hyaluronic Acid in Treatment of Knee Osteoarthritis: A Meta-Analysis, JAMA. (2003) 290, no. 23, 3115–3121, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.290.23.3115, 2-s2.0-0347380153.
10.1001/jama.290.23.3115
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
86 Wang C., Lin J., Chang C. J., Lin Y. T., and Hou S. M., Therapeutic Effects of Hyaluronic Acid on Osteoarthritis of the Knee. A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials, The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery. (2004) 86, no. 3, 538–545, https://doi.org/10.2106/00004623-200403000-00012, 2-s2.0-1442331599.
10.2106/00004623-200403000-00012
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
87 Hamburger M. I., Lakhanpal S., Mooar P. A., and Oster D., Intra-Articular Hyaluronans: a Review of Product-Specific Safety Profiles, Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism. (2003) 32, no. 5, 296–309, https://doi.org/10.1053/sarh.2002.50008, 2-s2.0-0037393863.
10.1053/sarh.2002.50008
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
88 Fardet L., Kassar A., Cabane J., and Flahault A., Corticosteroid-Induced Adverse Events in Adults: Frequency, Screening and Prevention, Drug Safety. (2007) 30, no. 10, 861–881, https://doi.org/10.2165/00002018-200730100-00005, 2-s2.0-34748851240.
10.2165/00002018-200730100-00005
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
89 Fubini S. L., Todhunter R. J., Burton-Wurster N., Vernier-Singer M., and MacLeod J. N., Corticosteroids Alter the Differentiated Phenotype of Articular Chondrocytes, Journal of Orthopaedic Research. (2001) 19, no. 4, 688–695, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0736-0266(00)00060-7, 2-s2.0-0034915286.
10.1016/S0736-0266(00)00060-7
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
90 Robion F. C., Doize B., Boure L. et al., Use of Synovial Fluid Markers of Cartilage Synthesis and Turnover to Study Effects of Repeated Intra-Articular Administration of Methylprednisolone Acetate on Articular Cartilage In Vivo, Journal of Orthopaedic Research. (2001) 19, no. 2, 250–258, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0736-0266(00)90008-1, 2-s2.0-0035063835.
10.1016/S0736-0266(00)90008-1
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
91 Podbielski A. and Raiss R., Dose Related Effects of Dexamethasone Treatment on the Ultrastructure of Articular Cartilage in Rats, Agents and Actions. (1986) 17, no. 3-4, 322–324, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01982635, 2-s2.0-0022656683.
10.1007/BF01982635
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
92 Barrueco J. L., Gazquez A., Redondo E., and Regodon S., Changes in the Coxofemoral Articular Cartilage in Wistar Rats After Systemic Administration of Corticoids, Annals of Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger. (1993) 175, no. 1, 47–51, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0940-9602(11)80237-2, 2-s2.0-0027403140.
10.1016/S0940-9602(11)80237-2
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
93 Behrens F., Shepard N., and Mitchell N., Metabolic Recovery of Articular Cartilage After Intra-Articular Injections of Glucocorticoid, The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery. (1976) 58, no. 8, 1157–1160, https://doi.org/10.2106/00004623-197658080-00023, 2-s2.0-0017051009.
10.2106/00004623-197658080-00023
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
94 Curtis J. R. and Singh J. A., Use of Biologics in Rheumatoid Arthritis: Current and Emerging Paradigms of Care, Clinical Therapeutics. (2011) 33, no. 6, 679–707, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2011.05.044, 2-s2.0-79959479569.
10.1016/j.clinthera.2011.05.044
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
95 Finckh A. and Gabay C., At the Horizon of Innovative Therapy in Rheumatology: New Biologic Agents, Current Opinion in Rheumatology. (2008) 20, no. 3, 269–275, https://doi.org/10.1097/bor.0b013e3282fa13b4, 2-s2.0-41649084155.
10.1097/BOR.0b013e3282fa13b4
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
96 Vivar N. and Van Vollenhoven R. F., Advances in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis, F1000Prime Reports. (2014) 6, no. 31, https://doi.org/10.12703/p6-31, 2-s2.0-84900534504.
10.12703/P6-31
PubMed Google Scholar
97 Koike T., Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis by Molecular-Targeted Agents: Efficacy and Limitations, Journal of Orthopaedic Science. (2015) 20, no. 6, 951–957, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00776-015-0766-9, 2-s2.0-84947615816.
10.1007/s00776-015-0766-9
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
98 Emery P., Sebba A., and Huizinga T. W. J., Biologic and Oral Disease-Modifying Antirheumatic Drug Monotherapy in Rheumatoid Arthritis, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (2013) 72, no. 12, 1897–1904, https://doi.org/10.1136/annrheumdis-2013-203485, 2-s2.0-84887426711.
10.1136/annrheumdis-2013-203485
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
99 Yazici Y., Shi N., and John A., Utilization of Biologic Agents in Rheumatoid Arthritis in the United States: Analysis of Prescribing Patterns in 16,752 Newly Diagnosed Patients and Patients New to Biologic Therapy, Bulletin of the NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases. (2008) 66, no. 2, 77–85.
PubMed Google Scholar
100 Evans C. H., Kraus V. B., and Setton L. A., Progress in Intra-Articular Therapy, Nature Reviews Rheumatology. (2014) 10, no. 1, 11–22, https://doi.org/10.1038/nrrheum.2013.159, 2-s2.0-84891165014.
10.1038/nrrheum.2013.159
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
101 Bongartz T., Choosing Between Targeted Therapies for Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients: the Oncology Perspective, Current Rheumatology Reviews. (2011) 7, no. 1, 70–76, https://doi.org/10.2174/157339711794474594, 2-s2.0-79551669331.
10.2174/157339711794474594
Google Scholar
102 De Keyser F., Choice of Biologic Therapy for Patients With Rheumatoid Arthritis: The Infection Perspective, Current Rheumatology Reviews. (2011) 7, no. 1, 77–87, https://doi.org/10.2174/157339711794474620, 2-s2.0-79551665893.
10.2174/157339711794474620
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
103 Rampersad A. G., Shapiro A. D., Rodriguez-Merchan E. C., Maahs J. A., Akins S., and Jimenez-Yuste V., Radiosynovectomy: Review of the Literature and Report From Two Haemophilia Treatment Centers, Blood Coagulation and Fibrinolysis. (2013) 24, no. 5, 465–470, https://doi.org/10.1097/mbc.0b013e3283602a28, 2-s2.0-84879894829.
10.1097/MBC.0b013e3283602a28
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
104 Klett R., Lange U., Haas H., Voth M., and Pinkert J., Radiosynoviorthesis of Medium-Sized Joints with Rhenium-186-Sulphide Colloid: A Review of the Literature, Rheumatology. (2007) 46, no. 10, 1531–1537, https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/kem155, 2-s2.0-34848893957.
10.1093/rheumatology/kem155
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
105 Kampen W. U., Voth M., Pinkert J., and Krause A., Therapeutic Status of Radiosynoviorthesis of the Knee With Yttrium [⁹⁰Y] Colloid in Rheumatoid Arthritis and Related Indications, Rheumatology. (2007) 46, no. 1, 16–24, https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/kel352, 2-s2.0-33845578112.
10.1093/rheumatology/kel352
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
106 De La Corte-Rodriguez H., Rodriguez-Merchan E. C., and Jimenez-Yuste V., Consecutive Radiosynovectomy Procedures at 6-Monthly Intervals Behave Independently in Haemophilic Synovitis, Blood Transfus. (2013) 11, no. 2, 254–259, https://doi.org/10.2450/2012.0099-12, 2-s2.0-84876889508.
10.2450/2012.0099-12
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
107 Gamp R., Die Radio Synovi Orthese im Hand Bereich, Arthritis & Rheumatology. (1983) 8, 165–167.
Google Scholar
108 Soroa V. E., del Huerto Velázquez Espeche M., Giannone C. et al., Effects of Radiosynovectomy With P-32 Colloid Therapy in Hemophilia and Rheumatoid Arthritis, Cancer Biotherapy & Radiopharmaceuticals. (2005) 20, no. 3, 344–348, https://doi.org/10.1089/cbr.2005.20.344, 2-s2.0-22344437502.
10.1089/cbr.2005.20.344
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
109 Siegel M. E., Siegel H. J., and Luck J. V., Radiosynovectomy’s Clinical Applications and Cost Effectiveness: A Review, Seminars in Nuclear Medicine. (1997) 27, no. 4, 364–371, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0001-2998(97)80009-8, 2-s2.0-0030764914.
10.1016/S0001-2998(97)80009-8
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
110 Llinás A., The Role of Synovectomy in the Management of a Target Joint, Haemophilia. (2008) 14, no. s3, 177–180, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2516.2008.01763.x, 2-s2.0-44249092791.
10.1111/j.1365-2516.2008.01763.x
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
111 de la Corte-Rodriguez H., Rodriguez-Merchan E., and Jimenez-Yuste V., Radiosynovectomy in Patients With Chronic Haemophilic Synovitis: When Is More Than One Injection Necessary?, European Journal of Haematology. (2011) 86, no. 5, 430–435, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0609.2011.01583.x, 2-s2.0-79953862786.
10.1111/j.1600-0609.2011.01583.x
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
112 De la Corte-Rodriguez H., Rodriguez-Merchan E. C., and Jimenez-Yuste V., Radiosynovectomy in Hemophilia: Quantification of its Effectiveness Through the Assessment of 10 Articular Parameters, Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. (2011) 9, no. 5, 928–935, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04246.x, 2-s2.0-79955665678.
10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04246.x
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
113 de la Corte-Rodriguez H., Rodriguez-Merchan E. C., and Jimenez-Yuste V., What Patient, Joint and Isotope Characteristics Influence the Response to Radiosynovectomy in Patients with Haemophilia?, Haemophilia. (2011) 17, no. 5, e990–e998, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2516.2011.02546.x, 2-s2.0-80052035642.
10.1111/j.1365-2516.2011.02546.x
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
114 Aderem A. and Underhill D. M., Mechanisms of Phagocytosis in Macrophages, Annual Review of Immunology. (1999) 17, no. 1, 593–623, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.17.1.593, 2-s2.0-0033046220.
10.1146/annurev.immunol.17.1.593
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
115 Beningo K. A. and Wang Y. L., Fc-Receptor-Mediated Phagocytosis Is Regulated by Mechanical Properties of the Target, Journal of Cell Science. (2002) 115, no. 4, 849–856, https://doi.org/10.1242/jcs.115.4.849.
10.1242/jcs.115.4.849
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
116 Champion J. A. and Mitragotri S., Role of Target Geometry in Phagocytosis, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. (2006) 103, no. 13, 4930–4934, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0600997103, 2-s2.0-33645533255.
10.1073/pnas.0600997103
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
117 Ahsan F. L., Rivas I. P., Khan M. A., and Torres Suarez A. I., Targeting to Macrophages: Role of Physicochemical Properties of Particulate Carriers-Liposomes and Microspheres-on the Phagocytosis by Macrophages, Journal of Controlled Release. (2002) 79, no. 1-3, 29–40, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0168-3659(01)00549-1, 2-s2.0-0037133126.
10.1016/S0168-3659(01)00549-1
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
118 Tabata Y. and Ikada Y., Effect of the Size and Surface Charge of Polymer Microspheres on Their Phagocytosis by Macrophage, Biomaterials. (1988) 9, no. 4, 356–362, https://doi.org/10.1016/0142-9612(88)90033-6, 2-s2.0-0023748061.
10.1016/0142-9612(88)90033-6
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
119 Pavelka K., Meier-Ruge W., Müller W., and Fridrich R., Histological Study of Effects of Colloidal 90 Yttrium on Knee Joint Tissues of Rabbits, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (1975) 34, no. 1, 64–69, https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.34.1.64, 2-s2.0-0016634861.
10.1136/ard.34.1.64
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
120 Myers S. L., Slowman S. D., and Brandt K. D., Radiation Synovectomy Stimulates Glycosaminoglycan Synthesis by Normal Articular Cartilage, The Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine. (1989) 114, no. 1, 27–35.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
121 Clunie G., Fischer M., and Eanm, EANM Procedure Guidelines for Radiosynovectomy, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging. (2003) 30, no. 3, BP12–BP16, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00259-002-1058-0.
10.1007/s00259-002-1058-0
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
122 Lu Z., Qiao Y., Zheng X. T., Chan-Park M. B., and Li C. M., Effect of Particle Shape on Phagocytosis of CdTe Quantum Dot-Cystine Composites, Med Chem Comm. (2010) 1, 84–86, https://doi.org/10.1039/c0md00008f, 2-s2.0-78149408046.
10.1039/c0md00008f
CAS Google Scholar
123 Gratton S. E. A., Ropp P. A., Pohlhaus P. D., Luft J. C., Madden V. J., Napier M. E., and DeSimone J. M., The Effect of Particle Design on Cellular Internalization Pathways, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. (2008) 105, no. 33, 11613–11618, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0801763105, 2-s2.0-50149110878.
10.1073/pnas.0801763105
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
124 Scott L. J. and Yanch J. C., Absorbed Dose Profiles for Radionuclides of Frequent Use in Radiation Synovectomy, Arthritis & Rheumatism. (1991) 34, no. 12, 1521–1530, https://doi.org/10.1002/art.1780341208, 2-s2.0-0026332941.
10.1002/art.1780341208
PubMed Google Scholar
125 Kampen W. U., Brenner W., Czech N., and Henze E., Intraarticular Application of Unsealed Beta-Emitting Radionuclides in the Treatment Course of Inflammatory Joint Diseases, Current Medicinal Chemistry-Anti-Inflammatory & Anti-Allergy Agents. (2002) 1, 77–87, https://doi.org/10.2174/1568014024606502.
10.2174/1568014024606502
CAS Google Scholar
126 Knut L., Radiosynovectomy in the Therapeutic Management of Arthritis, World Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (2015) 14, no. 01, 10–15, https://doi.org/10.4103/1450-1147.150509.
10.4103/1450-1147.150509
PubMed Google Scholar
127 Clunie G. and Ell P. J., A Survey of Radiation Synovectomy in Europe, 1991-1993, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1995) 22, no. 9, 970–976, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00808407, 2-s2.0-0029113490.
10.1007/BF00808407
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
128 Champion J. A. and Mitragotri S., Shape Induced Inhibition of Phagocytosis of Polymer Particles, Pharmaceutical Research. (2008) 26, no. 1, 244–249, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11095-008-9626-z, 2-s2.0-57749178400.
10.1007/s11095-008-9626-z
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
129 Paul D., Achouri S., Yoon Y.-Z., Herre J., Bryant C. E., and Cicuta P., Phagocytosis Dynamics Depends on Target Shape, Biophysical Journal. (2013) 105, no. 5, 1143–1150, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2013.07.036, 2-s2.0-84883628288.
10.1016/j.bpj.2013.07.036
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
130 Lakhkar N. J., Park J. H., Mordan N. J. et al., Titanium Phosphate Glass Microspheres for Bone Tissue Engineering, Acta Biomaterialia. (2012) 8, no. 11, 4181–4190, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2012.07.023, 2-s2.0-84868536191.
10.1016/j.actbio.2012.07.023
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
131 Conzone S. D., Brown R. F., Day D. E., and Ehrhardt G. J., In Vitro And In Vivo Dissolution Behavior of a Dysprosium Lithium Borate Glass Designed for the Radiation Synovectomy Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis, Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. (2002) 60, no. 2, 260–268, https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.10047.abs.
10.1002/jbm.10047
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
132 Ding J., Wang H., Cui X., Pang L., Song Y. E., Yao A., Pan H., and Wang D., Recent Development on Borosilicate Bioactive Glass, Journal of the Ceramic Society. (2022) 50, no. 4, 1074–1084.
CAS Google Scholar
133 Wollner I., Knutsen C., Smith P. et al., Effects of Hepatic Arterial Yttrium 90 Glass Microspheres in Dogs, Cancer. (1988) 61, no. 7, 1336–1344, https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0142(19880401)61:7%3C1336::aid-cncr2820610711%3E3.0.co;2-k.
10.1002/1097-0142(19880401)61:7<1336::AID-CNCR2820610711>3.0.CO;2-K
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
134 Vakili M., Rafatullah M., Salamatinia B. et al., Application of Chitosan and Its Derivatives as Adsorbents for Dye Removal From Water and Wastewater: A Review, Carbohydrate Polymers. (2014) 113, 115–130, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.07.007, 2-s2.0-84904983883.
10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.07.007
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
135 Azlan K., Wan Saime W. N., and Lai Ken L., Chitosan and Chemically Modified Chitosan Beads for Acid Dyes Sorption, Journal of Environmental Sciences. (2009) 21, no. 3, 296–302, https://doi.org/10.1016/s1001-0742(08)62267-6, 2-s2.0-62249130958.
10.1016/S1001-0742(08)62267-6
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
136 Lee S. H., Suh J. S., Kim H. S., Lee J. D., Song J., and Lee S. K., MR Evaluation of Radiation Synovectomy of the Knee by Means of Intra-Articular Injection of Holmium-166-Chitosan Complex in Patients With Rheumatoid Arthritis: Results at 4-Month Follow-Up, Korean Journal of Radiology. (2003) 4, no. 3, 170–178, https://doi.org/10.3348/kjr.2003.4.3.170, 2-s2.0-1542788001.
10.3348/kjr.2003.4.3.170
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
137 Cho Y. J., Kim K. I., Chun Y. S. et al., Radioisotope Synoviorthesis With Holmium-166-Chitosan Complex in Haemophilic Arthropathy, Haemophilia. (2010) 16, no. 4, 640–646, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2516.2009.02192.x, 2-s2.0-77954843657.
10.1111/j.1365-2516.2009.02192.x
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
138 Shin B. C., Park K. B., Jang B. S., Lim S. M., and Shim C. K., Preparation of 153Sm-Chitosan Complex for Radiation Synovectomy, Nuclear Medicine and Biology. (2001) 28, no. 6, 719–725, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0969-8051(00)00211-0, 2-s2.0-0034742162.
10.1016/S0969-8051(00)00211-0
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
139 Song J., Suh C. H., Park Y. B. et al., A Phase I/IIa Study on Intra-Articular Injection of Holmium-166-Chitosan Complex for the Treatment of Knee Synovitis of Rheumatoid Arthritis, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (2001) 28, no. 4, 489–497, https://doi.org/10.1007/s002590000470, 2-s2.0-0035093660.
10.1007/s002590000470
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
140 Yousefnia H., Jalilian A. R., Abbasi-Davani F. et al., Preparation and Quality Control of ¹⁷⁷Lu-Chitosan for Radiosynovectomy, Iranian Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (2013) 22, 1–6.
Google Scholar
141 Suzuki Y. S., Momose Y., Higashi N. et al., Biodistribution and Kinetics of Holmium-166-Chitosan Complex (DW166HC) in Rats and Mice, Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1998) 39, no. 12, 2161–2166.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
142 Markou P. and Chatzopoulos D., Yttrium-90 Silicate Radiosynovectomy Treatment of Painful Synovitis in Knee Osteoarthritis. Results After 6 Months, Hellenic Journal of Nuclear Medicine.(2009) 12, no. 1, 33–36.
PubMed Google Scholar
143 Gumpel J. M., Radiation Synovectomy With Yttrium-90 Silicate, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (1980) 39, no. 6, 614–615, https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.39.6.614, 2-s2.0-0019248921.
10.1136/ard.39.6.614
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
144 Nemec H. W. and Fridrich R., Retention and Dosage in Radiation Synovectomy With Yttrium-90-Silicate Colloid, Nuklearmedizin. (1977) 16, no. 3, 113–118, https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0037-1620618.
10.1055/s-0037-1620618
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
145 Arzu Gencoglu E., Aras G., Kucuk O. et al., Comparison of Tc-99m HIG and Three-phase Tc-99m MDP Bone Scintigraphy for Evaluating the Efficacy of Yttrium-90 Silicate Radionuclide Synovectomy, Clinical Nuclear Medicine. (2003) 28, no. 4, 277–285, https://doi.org/10.1097/01.RLU.0000057614.53482.2D.
10.1097/01.RLU.0000057614.53482.2D
PubMed Google Scholar
146 Jaworski R., McLean R., Choong K., Smart R., and Edmonds J., Re-Evaluating the Need for Hospitalization Following Synovectomy Using Yttrium-90 Silicate, Rheumatology. (1993) 32, no. 11, 1012–1017, https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/32.11.1012, 2-s2.0-0027368061.
10.1093/rheumatology/32.11.1012
CAS Google Scholar
147 Dunscombe P. B. and Ramsey N. W., Radioactivity Studies on 2 Synovial Specimens After Radiation Synovectomy With Yttrium-90 Silicate, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (1980) 39, no. 1, 87–89, https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.39.1.87, 2-s2.0-0018833576.
10.1136/ard.39.1.87
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
148 Bowen B., Darracott J., Garnett E. S., and Tomlinson R., Yttrium-90 Citrate Colloid for Radioisotope Synovectomy, American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy. (1975) 32, no. 10, 1027–1030, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajhp/32.10.1027.
10.1093/ajhp/32.10.1027
CAS Google Scholar
149 Teyssler P., Taborska K., Kolostova K., and Bobek V., Radiosynoviorthesis in Hemophilic Joints With Yttrium-90 Citrate and Rhenium-186 Sulfide and Long Term Results, Hellenic Journal of Nuclear Medicine.(2013) 16, no. 1, 44–49, https://doi.org/10.1967/s002449910071.
10.1967/s002449910071
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
150 Thomas S., Gabriel M. B., Assi P. E. et al., Radioactive Synovectomy With Yttrium-90 Citrate in Haemophilic Synovitis: Brazilian Experience, Haemophilia. (2011) 17, no. 1, e211–e216, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2516.2010.02379.x, 2-s2.0-79951861979.
10.1111/j.1365-2516.2010.02379.x
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
151 Rösch F., Herzog H., Plag C. et al., Radiation Doses of Yttrium-90 Citrate and Yttrium-90 EDTMP as Determined via Analogous Yttrium-86 Complexes and Positron Emission Tomography, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1996) 23, no. 8, 958–966, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01084371.
10.1007/BF01084371
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
152 Li P., Chen G., Zhang H., and Shen Z., Radiation Synovectomy by ¹⁸⁸Re-Sulfide in Haemophilic Synovitis, Haemophilia. (2004) 10, no. 5, 422–427, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2516.2004.00913.x, 2-s2.0-4844226058.
10.1111/j.1365-2516.2004.00913.x
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
153 Li P., Yu J., Chen G. et al., Applied Radioactivity in Radiation Synovectomy With [¹⁸⁸Re] Rhenium Sulfide Suspension, Nuclear Medicine Communications. (2006) 27, no. 8, 603–609, https://doi.org/10.1097/00006231-200608000-00002, 2-s2.0-33748115990.
10.1097/00006231-200608000-00002
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
154 Van der Zant F. M., Jahangier Z. N., Moolenburgh J. D., van der Zee W., Boer R. O., and Jacobs J. W., Radiation Synovectomy of the Ankle with 75 MBq Colloidal ¹⁸⁶Rhenium-Sulfide: Effect, Leakage, and Radiation Considerations, Journal of Rheumatology. (2004) 31, no. 5, 896–901.
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
155 Lasprilla A. J., Martinez G. A., Lunelli B. H., Jardini A. L., and Filho R. M., Poly-Lactic Acid Synthesis for Application in Biomedical Devices-A Review, Biotechnology Advances. (2012) 30, no. 1, 321–328, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2011.06.019, 2-s2.0-84855723748.
10.1016/j.biotechadv.2011.06.019
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
156 Garlotta D., A Literature Review of Poly (Lactic Acid), Journal of Polymers and the Environment. (2001) 9, no. 2, 63–84, https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1020200822435.
10.1023/A:1020200822435
CAS Google Scholar
157 Madhavan Nampoothiri K., Nair N. R., and John R. P., An Overview of the Recent Developments in Polylactide (PLA) Research, Bioresource Technology. (2010) 101, no. 22, 8493–8501, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.05.092, 2-s2.0-77955226866.
10.1016/j.biortech.2010.05.092
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
158 Mehta R., Kumar V., Bhunia H., and Upadhyay S. N., Synthesis of Poly (Lactic Acid): A Review, Journal of Macromolecular Science: Part C: Polymer Reviews. (2005) 45, no. 4, 325–349, https://doi.org/10.1080/15321790500304148, 2-s2.0-33644967509.
10.1080/15321790500304148
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
159 Upare P. P., Hwang Y. K., Chang J. S., and Hwang D. W., Synthesis of Lactide From Alkyl Lactate via a Prepolymer Route, Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research. (2012) 51, no. 13, 4837–4842, https://doi.org/10.1021/ie202714n, 2-s2.0-84859474060.
10.1021/ie202714n
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
160 Achmad F., Yamane K., Quan S., and Kokugan T., Synthesis of Polylactic Acid by Direct Polycondensation Under Vacuum Without Catalysts, Solvents and Initiators, Chemical Engineering Journal. (2009) 151, no. 1-3, 342–350, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2009.04.014, 2-s2.0-65649086856.
10.1016/j.cej.2009.04.014
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
161 Choubisa B., Dholakiya B., and Patel M., Synthesis and Characterization of Polylactic Acid (PLA) by Using SSA, CSA and TPA Type Solid Acid Catalyst System in Polycondensation Method, Journal of Macromolecular Science, Part A. (2013) 50, no. 8, 828–835, https://doi.org/10.1080/10601325.2013.802157, 2-s2.0-84879617533.
10.1080/10601325.2013.802157
CAS Google Scholar
162 Melichar F., Kropacek M., Srank J. et al., Labelled Compounds as Radiopharmaceuticals for Radiosynoviorthesis, Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry. (2009) 280, no. 2, 353–358, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-009-0526-4, 2-s2.0-65549157981.
10.1007/s10967-009-0526-4
CAS Google Scholar
163 Mumper R. J., Ryo U. Y., and Jay M., Neutron-Activated Holmium-166-Poly (L-Lactic Acid) Microspheres: A Potential Agent for the Internal Radiation Therapy of Hepatic Tumors, Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1991) 32, no. 11, 2139–2143.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
164 Mumper R. J., Mills B. J., Ryo U. Y., and Jay M., Polymeric Microspheres for Radionuclide Synovectomy Containing Neutron-Activated Holmium-166, Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1992) 33, no. 3, 398–402.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
165 Pandharipande S. and Sondawale S., Review on Synthesis of Hydroxyapatite and Its Bio-Composites, International Journal of Science Engineering and Technology. (2016) 5, 3410–3416.
Google Scholar
166 Nayak A. K., Hydroxyapatite Synthesis Methodologies: An Overview, International Journal of ChemTech Research. (2010) 2, 903–907.
Google Scholar
167 dos Santos M. F., Furtado R. N., Konai M. S. et al., Effectiveness of Radiation Synovectomy With Yttrium-90 and Samarium-153 Particulate Hydroxyapatite in Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients With Knee Synovitis: A Controlled, Randomized, Double-Blinded Trial, Clinical Rheumatology. (2011) 30, no. 1, 77–85, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10067-010-1626-9, 2-s2.0-79151477086.
10.1007/s10067-010-1626-9
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
168 dos Santos M. F., Furtado R. N., Konai M. S., Castiglioni M. L., Marchetti R. R., and Natour J., Effectiveness of Radiation Synovectomy With Samarium-153 Particulate Hydroxyapatite in Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients With Knee Synovitis: A Controlled Randomized Double-Blind Trial, Clinics. (2009) 64, no. 12, 1187–1193, https://doi.org/10.1590/s1807-59322009001200008, 2-s2.0-75649118854.
10.1590/S1807-59322009001200008
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
169 Clunie G., Lui D., Cullum I., Ell P. J., and Edwards J. C., Clinical Outcome After One Year Following Samarium-153 Particulate Hydroxyapatite Radiation Synovectomy, Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology. (1996) 25, no. 6, 360–366, https://doi.org/10.3109/03009749609065647, 2-s2.0-0030444185.
10.3109/03009749609065647
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
170 O’Duffy E. K., Clunie G. P., Lui D., Edwards J. C., and Ell P. J., Double Blind Glucocorticoid Controlled Trial of Samarium-153 Particulate Hydroxyapatite Radiation Synovectomy for Chronic Knee Synovitis, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (1999) 58, no. 9, 554–558, https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.58.9.554, 2-s2.0-0032842735.
10.1136/ard.58.9.554
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
171 Clunie G., Lui D., Cullum I., Edwards J. C., and Ell P. J., Samarium-153-Particulate Hydroxyapatite Radiation Synovectomy: Biodistribution Data for Chronic Knee Synovitis, Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1995) 36, no. 1, 51–57.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
172 Clunie G. P., Wilkinson I. D., Lui D. et al., Changes in Articular Synovial Lining Volume Measured by Magnetic Resonance in a Randomized, Double-Blind, Controlled Trial of Intra-Articular Samarium-153 Particulate Hydroxyapatite for Chronic Knee Synovitis, Rheumatology. (1999) 38, no. 2, 113–117, https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/38.2.113, 2-s2.0-0032756229.
10.1093/rheumatology/38.2.113
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
173 Chakraborty S., Das T., Banerjee S., Sarma H. D., and Venkatesh M., Preparation and Preliminary Biological Evaluation of ¹⁷⁷Lu-Labelled Hydroxyapatite as a Promising Agent for Radiation Synovectomy of Small Joints, Nuclear Medicine Communications. (2006) 27, no. 8, 661–668, https://doi.org/10.1097/00006231-200608000-00008, 2-s2.0-33748099337.
10.1097/00006231-200608000-00008
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
174 Abbasi I., Ishfaq M., and Sohaib M., Preparation and Pre-clinical Study of ¹⁷⁷Lu-Labelled Hydroxyapatite for Application in Radiation Synovectomy of Small Joints, Quarterly Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging. (2011) 55, no. 4, 458–468.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
175 Chakraborty S., Das T., Banerjee S., Subramanian S., Sarma H. D., and Venkatesh M., ¹⁷⁵Yb-Labeled Hydroxyapatite: A Potential Agent for Use in Radiation Synovectomy of Small Joints, Nuclear Medicine and Biology. (2006) 33, no. 4, 585–591, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2006.02.004, 2-s2.0-33646557622.
10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2006.02.004
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
176 Ferro-Flores G., Hernández-Oviedo O., Arteaga de Murphy C. et al., [¹⁶⁶Dy]Dy/¹⁶⁶Ho Hydroxide Macroaggregates: An In Vivo Generator System for Radiation Synovectomy, Applied Radiation and Isotopes. (2004) 61, no. 6, 1227–1233, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2004.04.018, 2-s2.0-4544252018.
10.1016/j.apradiso.2004.04.018
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
177 Rajeswari A., Vimalnath K. V., Sarma H. D. et al., Hydroxyapatite (HA) Microparticles Labeled With ³²P-A Promising Option in the Radiationsynovectomy for Inflamed Joints, Applied Radiation and Isotopes. (2016) 116, 85–91, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2016.07.022, 2-s2.0-84982671582.
10.1016/j.apradiso.2016.07.022
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
178 Vimalnath K. V., Chakraborty S., Rajeswari A. et al., Radiochemistry, Pre-Clinical Studies and First Clinical Investigation of ⁹⁰Y-Labeled Hydroxyapatite (HA) Particles Prepared Utilizing ⁹⁰Y Produced by (N,γ) Route, Nuclear Medicine and Biology. (2015) 42, no. 5, 455–464, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2015.01.006, 2-s2.0-84926174653.
10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2015.01.006
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
179 Chakraborty S., Vimalnath K. V., Rajeswari A. et al., Preparation, Evaluation, and First Clinical Use of ¹⁷⁷Lu-Labeled Hydroxyapatite (HA) Particles in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis: Utility of Cold Kits for Convenient Dose Formulation at Hospital Radiopharmacy, Journal of Labelled Compounds and Radiopharmaceuticals. (2014) 57, no. 7, 453–462, https://doi.org/10.1002/jlcr.3202, 2-s2.0-84903476760.
10.1002/jlcr.3202
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
180 Calegaro J. U., Machado J., Furtado R. G. et al., The Use of 185 MBq and 740 MBq of 153-Samarium Hydroxyapatite for Knee Synovectomy in Haemophilia, Haemophilia. (2014) 20, no. 3, 421–425, https://doi.org/10.1111/hae.12319, 2-s2.0-84898885812.
10.1111/hae.12319
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
181 Chattopadhyay S., Vimalnath K. V., Saha S. et al., Preparation and Evaluation of a New Radiopharmaceutical for Radiosynovectomy, ¹¹¹Ag-Labelled Hydroxyapatite (HA) Particles, Applied Radiation and Isotopes. (2008) 66, no. 3, 334–339, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2007.09.003, 2-s2.0-38349134848.
10.1016/j.apradiso.2007.09.003
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
182 Kothari K., Suresh S., Sarma H. D., Meera V., and Pillai M. R. A., ¹⁸⁸Re-Labeled Hydroxyapatite Particles for Radiation Synovectomy, Applied Radiation and Isotopes. (2003) 58, no. 4, 463–468, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0969-8043(03)00028-9, 2-s2.0-0037382385.
10.1016/S0969-8043(03)00028-9
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
183 Pandey U., Mukherjee A., Chaudhary P. R., Pillai M. R., and Venkatesh M., Preparation and Studies with ⁹⁰Y-Labelled Particles for Use in Radiation Synovectomy, Applied Radiation and Isotopes. (2001) 55, no. 4, 471–475, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0969-8043(01)00061-6, 2-s2.0-0034743147.
10.1016/S0969-8043(01)00061-6
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
184 Chinol M., Vallabhajosula S., Goldsmith S. J. et al., Chemistry and Biological Behavior of Samarium-153 and Rhenium-186-Labeled Hydroxyapatite Particles: Potential Radiopharmaceuticals for Radiationsynovectomy, Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1993) 34, no. 9, 1536–1542.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
185 Boerbooms A. M., Clinical Outcome After One Year Following Samarium-153 Particulate Hydroxyapatite Radiation Synovectomy, Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology. (1997) 26, no. 2, 136–137, https://doi.org/10.3109/03009749709115835, 2-s2.0-0030633012.
10.3109/03009749709115835
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
186 Shortkroff S., Mahmood A., and Sledge C. B., Studies on Ho-166-Labeled Hydroxyapatite: A New Agent for Radiation Synovectomy, Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1992) 33.
Google Scholar
187 Ansell B. M., Crook M. J. R., and Bywaters E. G., Evaluation of Intra-Articular Colloidal Gold 198 in the Treatment of Persistent Knee Effusions, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (1963) 22, 435–439.
10.1136/ard.22.6.435
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
188 Cayla J., Colloidal Au-198 in the Treatment of Hydrarthrosis in Rheumatoid Polyarthritis, Rev Rhum Mal Osteoartic. (1967) 34, no. 7, 438–441.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
189 Grahame R., Ramsey N. W., and Scott J. T., Radioactive Colloidal Gold. In Chronic Knee Effusions With Baker’s Cyst Formation, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (1970) 29, no. 2, 159–163, https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.29.2.159, 2-s2.0-0014757263.
10.1136/ard.29.2.159
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
190 Topp J. R. and Cross E. G., The Treatment of Persistent Knee Effusions With Intra-Articular Radioactive Gold: Preliminary Report, Canadian Medical Association Journal. (1970) 102, no. 7, 709–714.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
191 Topp J. R., Cross E. G., and Fam A. G., Treatment of Persistent Knee Effusions With Intra-Articular Radioactive Gold, Canadian Medical Association Journal. (1975) 112, no. 9, 1085–1089.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
192 Makin M. and Robin G., Radioactive Colloidal Gold in the Treatment of Chronic Synovial Effusions, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine. (1968) 61, no. 9, 908–910, https://doi.org/10.1177/003591576806100923, 2-s2.0-0014333263.
10.1177/003591576806100923
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
193 Visuthikosol V. and Kumpolpunth S., Intra-Articular Radioactive Colloidal Gold (¹⁹⁸Au) in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis, Medical Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand. (1981) 64, no. 9, 419–427.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
194 Van Soesbergen R. M., Hoefnagel C. A., Marcuse H. R., Dijkstra P. F., and Bernelot Moens H. J., Radiosynoviorthesis of the Knee: A Doubleblind Trial of 1 Versus 5 mCi Gold-198, Clinical Rheumatology. (1988) 7, no. 2, 224–230, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02204459, 2-s2.0-0024152640.
10.1007/BF02204459
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
195 Artem’eva L. S. and Duliapin V. A., Intra-Articular Administration of Radioactive Gold and Immunosuppressive Agents in Rheumatoid Arthritis, Terapevticheskii Arkhiv. (1975) 47, no. 11, 109–112.
Google Scholar
196 Ahlberg A., Mikulowski P., and Odelberg-Johnson O., Intra-Articular Injection of Radioactive Gold in Treatment of Chronic Synovial Effusion in the Knee: Late Results, Acta Rheumatologica Scandinavica. (1969) 15, no. 1-4, 81–89, https://doi.org/10.3109/rhe1.1969.15.issue-1-4.14, 2-s2.0-0014642026.
10.3109/rhe1.1969.15.issue-1-4.14
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
197 Artem’eva L. S., Local Treatment of Early Knee Joint Lesions in Rheumatoid Arthritis, Sovetskaya Meditsina. (1979) 1, 93–96.
Google Scholar
198 Ignat’ev V. K. and Mendeleev I. M., Intra-Articular Administration of Radioactive Colloid Gold 198 in Rheumatoid Arthritis, Klinicheskaya Meditsina (Moscow). (1974) 52, no. 8, 59–62.
Google Scholar
199 Esteban C. C. and Wilke W. S., Innovative Treatment Approaches for Rheumatoid Arthritis, Bailliere’s Clinical Rheumatology. (1995) 9, no. 4, 787–801.
PubMed Google Scholar
200 Pirich C., Pilger A., Schwameis E. et al., Radiation Synovectomy Using ¹⁶⁵Dy Ferric-Hydroxide and Oxidative DNA Damage in Patients with Different Types of Arthritis, Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (2000) 41, no. 2, 250–256.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
201 Pirich C., Wanivenhaus A., Graninger W. et al., Radiosynovectomy With Dysprosium-165 Iron Hydroxide, Acta Medica Austriaca. (1993) 20, no. 1-2, 49–53.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
202 McLaren A., Hetherington E., Maddalena D., and Snowdon G., Dysprosium (¹⁶⁵Dy) Hydroxide Macroaggregates for Radiation Synovectomy-Animal Studies, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1990) 16, no. 8-10, 627–632, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00998160, 2-s2.0-0025194729.
10.1007/BF00998160
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
203 Sledge C. B., Zuckerman J. D., Zalutsky M. R. et al., Treatment of Rheumatoid Synovitis of the Knee With Intra-Articular Injection of Dysprosium-165 Ferric Hydroxide Macroaggregates, Arthritis & Rheumatism. (1986) 29, no. 2, 153–159, https://doi.org/10.1002/art.1780290201, 2-s2.0-0022902584.
10.1002/art.1780290201
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
204 Sledge C. B., Noble J., Hnatowich D. J., Kramer R., and Shortkroff S., Experimental Radiation Synovectomy by ¹⁶⁵Dy Ferric Hydroxide Macroaggregate, Arthritis & Rheumatism. (1977) 20, no. 7, 1334–1342, https://doi.org/10.1002/art.1780200706, 2-s2.0-0017529443.
10.1002/art.1780200706
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
205 Sledge C. B., Atcher R. W., Shortkroff S., Anderson R. J., Bloomer W. D., and Hurson B. J., Intra-Articular Radiation Synovectomy, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research. (1984) 182, 37–40, https://doi.org/10.1097/00003086-198401000-00006.
10.1097/00003086-198401000-00006
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
206 Barnes C. L., Shortkroff S., Wilson M., and Sledge C. B., Intra-Articular Radiation Treatment of Rheumatoid Synovitis of the Ankle Withdysprosium-165ferric Hydroxide Macroaggregates, Foot & Ankle International. (1994) 15, no. 6, 306–310, https://doi.org/10.1177/107110079401500605, 2-s2.0-0028237389.
10.1177/107110079401500605
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
207 Vella M., Zuckerman J. D., Shortkroff S., Venkatesan P., and Sledge C. B., Repeat Radiation Synovectomy With Dysprosium 165-Ferric Hydroxide Macroaggregates in Rheumatoid Knees Unresponsive to Initial Injection, Arthritis & Rheumatism. (1988) 31, no. 6, 789–792, https://doi.org/10.1002/art.1780310615, 2-s2.0-0023924890.
10.1002/art.1780310615
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
208 Sledge C. B., Zuckerman J. D., Shortkroff S. et al., Synovectomy of the Rheumatoid Knee Using Intra-Articular Injection of Dysprosium-165 Ferric Hydroxide Macroaggregates, The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery. (1987) 69, no. 7, 970–975, https://doi.org/10.2106/00004623-198769070-00003, 2-s2.0-0023492475.
10.2106/00004623-198769070-00003
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
209 Pirich C., Prüfert U., Havlik E. et al., Monitoring of the Biodistribution and Biokinetics of Dysprosium-165 Ferric Hydroxide With a Shadow-Shield Whole-Body Counter, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1997) 24, no. 4, 398–402, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00881811, 2-s2.0-8244221663.
10.1007/BF00881811
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
210 Sledge C. B., Zuckerman J. D., Zalutsky M. R., Atcher R. W., Shortkroff S., Lionberger D. R., Rose H. A., Hurson B. J., LankennerP. A.Jr., Anderson R. J., and Bloomer W. A., Treatment of Rheumatoid Synovitis of the Knee With Intraarticular Injection of Dysprosium 165-Ferric Hydroxide Macroaggregates, Arthritis & Rheumatism. (1986) 29, no. 2, 153–159, https://doi.org/10.1002/art.1780290201, 2-s2.0-0022902584.
10.1002/art.1780290201
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
211 Zalutsky M. R., Venkatesan P. P., English R. J., Shortkroff S., Sledge C. B., and Adelstein S. J., Radiation Synovectomy With ¹⁶⁵Dy-FHMA: Lymph Node Uptake and Radiation Dosimetry Calculations, International Journal of Nuclear Medicine & Biology. (1986) 12, no. 6, 457–465, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0047-0740(86)80008-0, 2-s2.0-0022560595.
10.1016/S0047-0740(86)80008-0
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
212 Hnatowich D. J., Kramer R. I., Sledge C. B., Noble J., and Shortkroff S., Dysprosium-165 Ferric Hydroxide Macroaggregates for Radiation Synovectomy, Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1978) 19, no. 3, 303–308.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
213 Zuckerman J. D., Sledge C. B., Shortkroff S., and Venkatesan P., Treatment of Antigen-Induced Arthritis in Rabbits With Dysprosium-165 Ferric Hydroxide Macroaggregates, Journal of Orthopaedic Research. (1989) 7, no. 1, 50–60, https://doi.org/10.1002/jor.1100070108, 2-s2.0-0024569692.
10.1002/jor.1100070108
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
214 English R. J., Zalutsky M., Venkatesan P., and Sledge C. B., Therapeutic Application of Dysprosium-165-FHMA in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Knee Effusions, Journal of Nuclear Medicine Technology. (1986) 14, 18–20.
Google Scholar
215 Havlik E., Pirich C., Preitfellner J. et al., Radiation Exposure From Patients Treated With ¹⁶⁵Dy-Ferric Hydroxide, Nuclear Medicine Communications. (2001) 22, no. 1, 79–82, https://doi.org/10.1097/00006231-200101000-00011, 2-s2.0-0035119091.
10.1097/00006231-200101000-00011
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
216 Menkes C. J., Gô A. L., Verrier P., Aignan M., and Delbarre F., Double-Blind Study of Erbium 169 Injection (Synoviorthesis) in Rheumatoid Digital Joints, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (1977) 36, no. 3, 254–256, https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.36.3.254, 2-s2.0-0017744528.
10.1136/ard.36.3.254
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
217 Kahan A., Mödder G., Menkes C. J. et al., ¹⁶⁹Erbium-Citrate Synoviorthesis After Failure of Local Corticosteroid Injections to Treat Rheumatoid Arthritis-Affected Finger Joints, Clinical & Experimental Rheumatology. (2004) 22, no. 6, 722–726.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
218 Farahati J., Elliott J., Höppner S. et al., Post-Radiosynovectomy Imaging of Er-169 Using Scintigraphy and Autoradiography, Clinical Case Reports. (2017) 5, no. 6, 1048–1050.
10.1002/ccr3.987
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
219 Ruotsi A., Hypén M., Rekonen A., and Oka M., Erbium-169 Versus Triamcinolone Hexacetonide in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Finger Joints, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (1979) 38, no. 1, 45–47, https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.38.1.45, 2-s2.0-0018772486.
10.1136/ard.38.1.45
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
220 Gumpel J. M., Matthews S. A., and Fisher M., Synoviorthesis With Erbium-169: A Double-Blind Controlled Comparison of Erbium-169 With Corticosteroid, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (1979) 38, no. 4, 341–343, https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.38.4.341, 2-s2.0-0018649476.
10.1136/ard.38.4.341
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
221 Boussina I., Toussaint M., Ott H., Hermans P., and Fallet G. H., A Double-Blind Study of Erbium169 Synoviorthesis in Rheumatoid Digital Joints. Results after One Year, Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology. (1979) 8, no. 2, 71–74, https://doi.org/10.3109/03009747909105339, 2-s2.0-0018715912.
10.3109/03009747909105339
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
222 Torres M., Ayra E., Albuerne O., and Montano Delgado M. A., Absorbed Dose Profiles for ³²P, ⁹⁰Y, ¹⁸⁸Re, ¹⁷⁷Lu, ¹⁵³Sm and ¹⁶⁹Er: Radionuclides Used in Radiosynoviortheses Treatment, Revista Española de Medicina Nuclear. (2009) 28, no. 4, 188–192, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0212-6982(09)00006-8, 2-s2.0-67650966671.
10.1016/S0212-6982(09)00006-8
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
223 Vereb M., Liepe K., Fischer M., Kaliska L., Noskovicova L., and Balogova S., Radiosynoviorthesis of Acromioclavicular Joint Using ¹⁶⁹Er-Citrate: Prospective Evaluation of Efficacy, Nuclear Medicine Review. (2018) 21, no. 1, 26–31, https://doi.org/10.5603/nmr.a2018.0004, 2-s2.0-85043335146.
10.5603/NMR.a2018.0004
PubMed Google Scholar
224 Chakraborty S., Das T., Chirayil V., Lohar S. P., and Sarma H. D., Erbium-169 Labeled Hydroxyapatite Particulates for Use in Radiation Synovectomy of Digital Joints-A Preliminary Investigation, Radiochimica Acta. (2014) 102, no. 5, 443–450, https://doi.org/10.1515/ract-2013-2166, 2-s2.0-84901024612.
10.1515/ract-2013-2166
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
225 Farahati J., Kazek S., Maric I. et al., Post-Radiosynovectomy Imaging Utilizing Erbium-169 Citrate, Applied Radiation and Isotopes. (2019) 154, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2019.108853, 2-s2.0-85071694582.
10.1016/j.apradiso.2019.108853
PubMed Google Scholar
226 Vimalnath K. V., Shetty P., Chakraborty S. et al., Practicality of Production of ³²P by Direct Neutron Activation for Its Utilization in Bone Pain Palliation as Na₃[³²P] PO₄, Cancer Biotherapy and Radiopharmaceuticals. (2013) 28, no. 5, 423–428, https://doi.org/10.1089/cbr.2012.1335, 2-s2.0-84878854832.
10.1089/cbr.2012.1335
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
227 Vimalnath K. V., Shetty P., Rajeswari A., Chirayil V., Chakraborty S., and Dash A., Reactor Production of ³²P for Medical Applications: An Assessment of Methods, Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry. (2014) 301, no. 2, 555–565, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-014-3115-0, 2-s2.0-84904317757.
10.1007/s10967-014-3115-0
CAS Google Scholar
228 Winston M. A., Bluestone R., Cracchiolo A., and Blahd W. H., Radioisotope Synovectomy With 32P-Chromic Phosphate-Kinetic Studies, Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1973) 14, no. 12, 886–889.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
229 Soroa V. E., del Huerto Velázquez Espeche M., Giannone C. et al., Effects of Radiosynovectomy With P-32 Colloid Therapy in Hemophilia and Rheumatoid Arthritis, Cancer Biotherapy & Radiopharmaceuticals. (2005) 20, no. 3, 344–348, https://doi.org/10.1089/cbr.2005.20.344, 2-s2.0-22344437502.
10.1089/cbr.2005.20.344
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
230 Siegel H. J., Luck J. V., Siegel M. E., and Quinones C., Phosphate-32 Colloid Radiosynovectomy in Hemophilia: Outcome of 125 Procedures, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research. (2001) 392, 409–417, https://doi.org/10.1097/00003086-200111000-00054, 2-s2.0-0035169021.
10.1097/00003086-200111000-00054
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
231 Mathew P., Talbut D. C., Frogameni A. et al., Isotopic Synovectomy With P-32 in Paediatric Patients With Haemophilia, Haemophilia. (2000) 6, no. 5, 547–555, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2516.2000.00406.x, 2-s2.0-0033824895.
10.1046/j.1365-2516.2000.00406.x
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
232 Mortazavi S. M., Asadollahi S., Farzan M. et al., ³²P Colloid Radiosynovectomy in Treatment of Chronic Haemophilic Synovitis: Iran Experience, Haemophilia. (2007) 13, no. 2, 182–188, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2516.2006.01424.x, 2-s2.0-33846911121.
10.1111/j.1365-2516.2006.01424.x
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
233 Silva M., Luck J. R., and Siegel M. E., ³²P Chromic Phosphate Radiosynovectomy for Chronic Haemophilic Synovitis, Haemophilia. (2001) 7, no. s2, 40–49, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2516.2001.00109.x.
10.1046/j.1365-2516.2001.00109.x
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
234 Zhang W. Q., Han S. Q., Yuan Z., He Y. T., Zhang H., and Zhang M., Effects of Intraarticular ³²P Colloid in the Treatment of Hemophilic Synovitis of the Knee: A Short Term Clinical Study, Indian Journal of Orthopaedics. (2016) 50, no. 1, 55–58, https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5413.173507, 2-s2.0-84955146917.
10.4103/0019-5413.173507
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
235 Howson M. P., Shepard N. L., and Mitchell N. S., Colloidal Chromic Phosphate ³²P Synovectomy in Antigen-Induced Arthritis in the Rabbit, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research. (1988) 229, 283–293, https://doi.org/10.1097/00003086-198804000-00040.
10.1097/00003086-198804000-00040
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
236 Siegel H. J., LuckJ. V.Jr, Siegel M. E., Quines C., and Anderson E., Hemarthrosis and Synovitis Associated With Hemophilia: Clinical Use of P-32 Chromic Phosphate Synoviorthesis for Treatment, Radiology. (1994) 190, no. 1, 257–261, https://doi.org/10.1148/radiology.190.1.8259416, 2-s2.0-0028125728.
10.1148/radiology.190.1.8259416
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
237 Rivard G. E., Girard M., Bélanger R., Jutras M., Guay J. P., and Marton D., Synoviorthesis with Colloidal ³²P Chromic Phosphate for the Treatment of Hemophilic Arthropathy, Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. (1994) 76, no. 4, 482–488, https://doi.org/10.2106/00004623-199404000-00002, 2-s2.0-0028182481.
10.2106/00004623-199404000-00002
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
238 Vider M., Radionuclide Synovectomy With ³²P-Chromic Phosphate, Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1975) 16, no. 1, 100–101.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
239 Ubios A. M., Cabrini R. L., Silberman F. S., and Miranda F. F., Radiation Effects Produced by the Intra-articular Injection of ³²P, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research. (1978) 136, 299–303, https://doi.org/10.1097/00003086-197810000-00046.
10.1097/00003086-197810000-00046
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
240 Unni P. R., Chaudhari P. R., Venkatesh M., Ramamoorthy N., and Pillai M. R. A., Preparation and Bioevaluation of ¹⁶⁶Ho Labelled Hydroxyapatite (HA) Particles for Radiosynovectomy, Nuclear Medicine and Biology. (2002) 29, no. 2, 199–209, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0969-8051(01)00303-1, 2-s2.0-0036007562.
10.1016/S0969-8051(01)00303-1
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
241 Mäkelä O., Penttilä P., Kolehmainen E., Sukura A., Sankari S., and Tulamo R. M., Experimental Radiation Synovectomy in Rabbit Knee With Holmium-166 Ferric Hydroxide Macroaggregate, Nuclear Medicine and Biology. (2002) 29, no. 5, 593–598, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0969-8051(02)00317-7, 2-s2.0-0035999175.
10.1016/S0969-8051(02)00317-7
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
242 Mäkelä O., Sukura A., Penttilä P., Hiltunen J., and Tulamo R. M., Radiation Synovectomy With Holmium-166 Ferric Hydroxide Macroaggregate in Equine Metacarpophalangeal and Metatarsophalangeal Joints, Veterinary Surgery. (2003) 32, no. 4, 402–409, https://doi.org/10.1053/jvet.2003.50039, 2-s2.0-0041884932.
10.1053/jvet.2003.50039
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
243 Ofluoglu S., Schwameis E., Zehetgruber H. et al., Radiation Synovectomy With ¹⁶⁶Ho-Ferric Hydroxide: A First Experience, Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (2002) 43, no. 11, 1489–1494.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
244 Kraft O., Kasparek R., Ullmann V., Melichar F., Kropacek M., and Mirzajevov M., Our First Clinical Experience With Radiosynoviorthesis by Means of ¹⁶⁶Ho-Holmium-Boro-Macroaggregates, Nuclear Medicine in Central and Eastern Europe. (2005) 8, no. 2, 131–134.
PubMed Google Scholar
245 Seong S. K., Ryu J. M., Shin D. H. et al., Biodistribution and Excretion of Radioactivity After the Administration of ¹⁶⁶Ho-Chitosan Complex (DW-166HC) Into the Prostate of Rat, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging. (2005) 32, no. 8, 910–917, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00259-005-1792-1, 2-s2.0-23944452412.
10.1007/s00259-005-1792-1
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
246 Vimalnath K. V., Chakraborty S., Rajeswari A. et al., Formulation, Characterization and Bio-Evaluation of Holmium-166 Labeled Agglomerated Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Treatment of Arthritis of Knee Joints. Mat, Materials Today: Proceedings. (2017) 4, no. 2, 4329–4338, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2017.04.003, 2-s2.0-85034273279.
10.1016/j.matpr.2017.04.003
Google Scholar
247 Calegaro J., Silveira C., Hage D. et al., Comparison of the Effect of Knee Synovectomy in Haemophilic Patients With ¹⁵³Sm- and ⁹⁰Y-Labelled Hydroxyapatite 1 Year After, Haemophilia. (2014) 20, no. 6, 873–878, https://doi.org/10.1111/hae.12453, 2-s2.0-84932149658.
10.1111/hae.12453
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
248 Calegaro J. U., Machado J., De Paula J. C., De Almeida J. S., and Casulari L. A., Clinical Evaluation After 1 Year of 153-Samarium Hydroxyapatite Synovectomy in Patients With Haemophilic Arthropathy, Haemophilia. (2009) 15, no. 1, 240–246, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2516.2008.01908.x, 2-s2.0-63049088249.
10.1111/j.1365-2516.2008.01908.x
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
249 Kampen W. U., Matis E., Czech N., Soti Z., Gratz S., and Henze E., Serious Complications After Radiosynoviorthesis. Survey on Frequency and Treatment Modalities, Nuklearmedizin. (2006) 45, no. 6, 262–268, https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1625120.
10.1055/s-0038-1625120
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
250 van der Zant F. M., Jahangier Z. N., Moolenburgh J. D., Swen W. A. A., Boer R. O., and Jacobs J. W. G., Clinical Effect of Radiation Synovectomy of the Upper Extremity Joints: A Randomised, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging. (2007) 34, no. 2, 212–218, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00259-006-0195-2, 2-s2.0-33846427391.
10.1007/s00259-006-0195-2
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
251 Gregoir C. and Menke`s C. J., The Rheumatoid Elbow: Patterns of Joint Involvement and the Outcome of Synoviorthesis, Annales de Chirurgie de la Main. (1991) 10, 243–246.
CAS Google Scholar
252 Tebib J. G., Manil L., and Mo¨dder G., Better Results With Rhenium-186 Radiosynoviorthesis Than With Cortivazol in Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): A Two-Year Follow-Up Randomized Controlled Multicentric Study, Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology. (2004) 22, 609–616.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
253 Koca G., Ozsoy H., Atilgan H. I., Demirel K., Dincel V. E., and Korkmaz M., Application of Rhenium-186 Radiosynovectomy in Elbow Diffuse Pigmented Villonodular Synovitis-A Case Report With Multiple Joint Involvement, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging. (2012) 46, no. 3, 215–217, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13139-012-0152-x, 2-s2.0-84865720474.
10.1007/s13139-012-0152-x
Google Scholar
254 Göbel D., Gratz S., von Rothkirch T., Becker W., and Willert H. G., Radiosynoviorthesis With Rhenium-186 in Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Prospective Study of Three Treatment Regimens, Rheumatology International. (1997) 17, no. 3, 105–108, https://doi.org/10.1007/s002960050017, 2-s2.0-0030667458.
10.1007/s002960050017
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
255 Chinol M., Vallabhajosula S., Goldsmith S. J., Klein M. J., Deutsch K. F., Chinen L. K., Brodack J. W., Deutsch E. A., Watson B. A., and Tofe A. J., Chemistry and Biological Behavior of Samarium-153 and Rhenium-186-Labeled Hydroxyapatite Particles: Potential Radiopharmaceuticals for Radiation Synovectomy, Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1993) 34, no. 9, 1536–1542.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
256 Kavaklí K., Aydogdu S., Taner M. et al., Radioisotope Synovectomy With Rhenium186 in Haemophilic Synovitis for Elbows, Ankles and Shoulders, Haemophilia. (2008) 14, no. 3, 518–523, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2516.2008.01691.x, 2-s2.0-43149123563.
10.1111/j.1365-2516.2008.01691.x
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
257 Grmek M., Milcinski M., Fettich J., and Brecelj J., Radiation Exposure of Haemophiliacs After Radiosynoviorthesis With ¹⁸⁶Re Colloid, Cancer Biotherapy and Radiopharmaceuticals. (2007) 22, no. 3, 417–422, https://doi.org/10.1089/cbr.2006.322, 2-s2.0-34447504887.
10.1089/cbr.2006.322
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
258 Dash A. and Knapp J., FF(Russ). An Overview of Radioisotope Separation Technologies for Development of ¹⁸⁸W/¹⁸⁸Re Radionuclide Generators providing¹⁸⁸Re to Meet Future Research and Clinical Demands, RSC Advances. (2015) 5, 39012–39036.
10.1039/C5RA03890A
CAS Google Scholar
259 Pillai M. R. A., Dash A., and Knapp F. F., FF(Russ). Rhenium-188: Availability From the ¹⁸⁸W/¹⁸⁸Re Generator and Status of Current Applications, Current Radiopharmaceuticals. (2012) 5, no. 3, 228–243, https://doi.org/10.2174/1874471011205030228.
10.2174/1874471011205030228
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
260 Knapp F. F. J., Beets A. L., Guhlke S. et al., Availability of Rhenium-188 From the Alumina-Based Tungsten-188/Rhenium-188 Generator for Preparation of Rhenium-188-Labeled Radiopharmaceuticals for Cancer Treatment, Anticancer Research. (1997) 17, no. 3B, 1783–1795.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
261 Lambert B. and de Klerk J. M., Clinical Applications of ¹⁸⁸Re-Labelled Radiopharmaceuticals for Radionuclide Therapy, Nuclear Medicine Communications. (2006) 27, no. 3, 223–229, https://doi.org/10.1097/00006231-200603000-00004, 2-s2.0-33646697521.
10.1097/00006231-200603000-00004
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
262 Shin K., Lee J. C., Choi H. J. et al., Radiation Synovectomy Using ¹⁸⁸Re-Tin Colloid Improves Knee Synovitis as Shown by MRI in Refractory Rheumatoid Arthritis, Nuclear Medicine Communications. (2007) 28, no. 4, 239–244, https://doi.org/10.1097/mnm.0b013e32805b72b0, 2-s2.0-34247600212.
10.1097/MNM.0b013e32805b72b0
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
263 Chang Yell S., Miwon S., Jun IIK. et al., DA-7911,188 Rhenium-tin Colloid, as a New Therapeutic Agent of Rheumatoid Arthritis, Archives of Pharmacal Research. (2003) 26, no. 2, 168–172, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02976665.
10.1007/BF02976665
PubMed Google Scholar
264 Lee E. B., Shin K. C., Lee Y. J. et al., ¹⁸⁸Re-tin-Colloid as a New Therapeutic Agent for Rheumatoid Arthritis, Nuclear Medicine Communications. (2003) 24, no. 6, 689–696, https://doi.org/10.1097/00006231-200306000-00012, 2-s2.0-85047686827.
10.1097/00006231-200306000-00012
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
265 Kim Y. J., Jeong J. M., Chang Y. S. et al., Preparation and Biodistribution of Re-188 Sulfur Colloid, The Korean Journal of Nuclear Medicine Technolo. (1998) 32, 298–304.
Google Scholar
266 Venkatesan P. P., Shortkroff S., Zalutsky M. R., and Sledge C. B., Rhenium hHeptasulfide: A Potential Carrier System for Radiation Synovectomy, International Journal of Radiation Applications and Instrumentation. Part B. Nuclear Medicine and Biology. (1990) 17, no. 4, 357–362, https://doi.org/10.1016/0883-2897(90)90101-6, 2-s2.0-44949269880.
10.1016/0883-2897(90)90101-6
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
267 Jeong J. M., Lee Y. J., Kim Y. J. et al., Preparation of Rhenium-188-Tin Colloid as a Radiation Synovectomy Agent and Comparison with Rhenium-188-Sulfur Colloid, Applied Radiation and Isotopes. (2000) 52, no. 4, 851–855, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0969-8043(99)00131-1, 2-s2.0-0008219454.
10.1016/S0969-8043(99)00131-1
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
268 Wang S. J., Lin W. Y., Hsieh B. T. et al., Rhenium-188 Sulphur Colloid as a Radiation Synovectomy Agent, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1995) 22, no. 6, 505–507, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00817272, 2-s2.0-0029045864.
10.1007/BF00817272
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
269 Grillenberger K. G., Glatz S., and Reske S. N., Rhenium-188 Labeled Hydroxyapatite and Rhenium-188 Sulfur Colloid. In Vitro Comparison of Two Agents for Radiation Synovectomy, Nuklearmedizin. (1997) 36, no. 2, 71–75, https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1629737.
10.1055/s-0038-1629737
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
270 Kamaleshwaran K. K., Rajamani V., Krishnan B. et al., Radiosynovectomy of Proximal Interphalangeal Joint Synovitis in Rheumatoid Arthritis Treated With Rhenium-188 Labeled Tin-Colloid and Imaging With Single-Photon Emission Computerized Tomography/computed Tomography: A First Case Report, World Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (2015) 14, no. 03, 216–218, https://doi.org/10.4103/1450-1147.161730.
10.4103/1450-1147.161730
PubMed Google Scholar
271 Wang S. J., Lin W. Y., Chen M. N. et al., Histologic Study of Effects of Radiationsynovectomy With Rhenium-188 Microsphere, Nuclear Medicine and Biology. (2001) 28, no. 6, 727–732, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0969-8051(01)00228-1, 2-s2.0-0034881588.
10.1016/S0969-8051(01)00228-1
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
272 Shamim S. A., Kumar R., Halanaik D. et al., Role of Rhenium-188 Tin Colloid Radiosynovectomy in Patients With Inflammatory Knee Joint Conditions Refractory to Conventional Therapy, Nuclear Medicine Communications. (2010) 31, no. 9, 814–820, https://doi.org/10.1097/mnm.0b013e32833d6869, 2-s2.0-77956877331.
10.1097/MNM.0b013e32833d6869
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
273 Ures M., Savio E., Malanga A., Fernández M., Paolino A., and Gaudiano J., Physico-Chemical Characterization and Biological Evaluation of 188-Rhenium Colloids for Radiosynovectomy, BMC Nuclear Medicine. (2002) 2, no. 1, https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2385-2-1, 2-s2.0-1842492946.
10.1186/1471-2385-2-1
PubMed Google Scholar
274 Shukla J., Bandopadhyaya G. P., Shamim S. A., and Kumar R., Characterization of Re-188-sn Microparticles Used for Synovitis Treatment, International Journal of Pharmaceutics. (2007) 338, no. 1-2, 43–47, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2007.01.014, 2-s2.0-34248639862.
10.1016/j.ijpharm.2007.01.014
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
275 Pervez S., Mushtaq A., and Arif M., Preparation of ¹⁸⁸Re-Labeled Hydroxyapatite for Radiosynovectomy, Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry. (2002) 254, no. 2, 383–385, https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1021604806814, 2-s2.0-0036844944.
10.1023/A:1021604806814
CAS Google Scholar
276 Das T. and Banerjee S., Radiopharmaceuticals for Metastatic Bone Pain Palliation: Available Options in the Clinical Domain and Their Comparisons, Clinical & Experimental Metastasis. (2017) 34, 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10585-016-9831-9, 2-s2.0-85006459087.
10.1007/s10585-016-9831-9
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
277 Das T. and Banerjee S., Theranostic Applications of Lutetium-177 in Radionuclide Therapy, Current Radiopharmaceuticals. (2015) 9, no. 1, 94–101, https://doi.org/10.2174/1874471008666150313114644.
10.2174/1874471008666150313114644
Google Scholar
278 Dash A., Pillai M. R. A., and KnappF. F.Jr., Production of ¹⁷⁷Lu for Targeted Radionuclide Therapy: Available Options, Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging. (2015) 49, no. 2, 85–107, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13139-014-0315-z, 2-s2.0-84931287713.
10.1007/s13139-014-0315-z
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
279 Chakraborty S., Vimalnath K. V., Lohar S. P., Shetty P., and Dash A., On the Practical Aspects of Large-Scale Production of ¹⁷⁷Lu for Peptide Receptor Radionuclide Therapy Using Direct Neutron Activation of ¹⁷⁶Lu in a Medium Flux Research Reactor: The Indian Experience, Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry. (2014) 302, no. 1, 233–243, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-014-3169-z, 2-s2.0-84924530120.
10.1007/s10967-014-3169-z
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
280 Pillai M. R. A., Chakraborty S., Das T., Venkatesh M., and Ramamoorthy N., Production Logistics of ¹⁷⁷Lu for Radionuclide Therapy, Applied Radiation and Isotopes. (2003) 59, no. 2-3, 109–118, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0969-8043(03)00158-1, 2-s2.0-0042009841.
10.1016/S0969-8043(03)00158-1
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
281 Banerjee S., Das T., Chakraborty S., and Venkatesh M., Emergence and Present Status of Lu-177 in Targeted Radiotherapy: The Indian Scenario, Ract. (2012) 100, no. 2, 115–126, https://doi.org/10.1524/ract.2011.1843, 2-s2.0-84858237853.
10.1524/ract.2011.1843
CAS Google Scholar
282 Das T. and Pillai M. R. A., Options to Meet the Future Global Demand of Radionuclides for Radionuclide Therapy, Nuclear Medicine and Biology. (2013) 40, no. 1, 23–32, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2012.09.007, 2-s2.0-84871919395.
10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2012.09.007
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
283 Bard D. R., Knight C. G., and Page-Thomas D. P., Effect of the Intra-Articular Injection of Lutetium-177 in Chelator Liposomes on the Progress of an Experimental Arthritis in Rabbits, Clinical & Experimental Rheumatology. (1985) 3, 237–242.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
284 Polyak A., Nagy L. N., Drotár E. et al., Lu-177-Labeled Zirconia Particles for Radiation Synovectomy, Cancer Biotherapy & Radiopharmaceuticals. (2015) 30, no. 10, 433–438, https://doi.org/10.1089/cbr.2015.1881, 2-s2.0-84951293484.
10.1089/cbr.2015.1881
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
285 Chakraborty S., Vimalnath K. V., Rajeswari A. et al., Radiolanthanide-labeled HA Particles in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis: Ready-To-Use Cold Kits for Rapid Formulation in Hospital Radiopharmacy, Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry. (2014) 302, no. 2, 875–881, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-014-3309-5, 2-s2.0-84911991873.
10.1007/s10967-014-3309-5
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
286 Chakraborty S., Vimalnath K. V., Sharma J. et al., Barium Titanate Microparticles as Potential Carrier Platform for Lanthanide Radionuclides for Their Use in the Treatment of Arthritis, Journal of Labelled Compounds and Radiopharmaceuticals. (2018) 61, no. 7, 522–532, https://doi.org/10.1002/jlcr.3615, 2-s2.0-85046402281.
10.1002/jlcr.3615
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
287 Chakraborty S., Sharma K. S., Rajeswari A. et al., Radiolanthanide-Loaded Agglomerated Fe₃O₄ Nanoparticles for Possible Use in Treatment of Arthritis: Formulation, Characterization and Evaluation in Rats, Journal of Materials Chemistry B. (2015) 3, no. 27, 5455–5466, https://doi.org/10.1039/c5tb00677e, 2-s2.0-84934300470.
10.1039/C5TB00677E
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
288 Yousefnia H., Jalilian A. R., Bahrami-Samani A., Mazidi M., Ghannadi Maragheh M., and Abbasi-Davani F., Development of ¹⁷⁷Lu-Phytate Complex for Radiosynovectomy, The Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences. (2013) 16, no. 5, 705–709.
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
289 Arora G., Singh M., Jha P. et al., Formulation and Characterization of Lutetium-177-Labeled Stannous (Tin) Colloid for Radiosynovectomy, Nuclear Medicine Communications. (2017) 38, no. 7, 587–592, https://doi.org/10.1097/mnm.0000000000000684, 2-s2.0-85019650796.
10.1097/MNM.0000000000000684
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
290 Mercanoglu G., Alcın G., Ozturkmen Y., and Cermik T., Formulation and In-Vivo Characterization of ¹⁷⁷Lu-Tin-Colloid as a Radiosynovectomy Agent, Current Radiopharmaceuticals. (2024) 17, no. 1, 68–76, https://doi.org/10.2174/0118744710252994231024064842.
10.2174/0118744710252994231024064842
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
291 Shamim S. A., Arora G., Jha P. et al., Comparison of Lutetium-177 Tin Colloid and Rhenium-188 Tin Colloid Radiosynovectomy in Chronic Knee Arthritis, Nuclear Medicine Communications. (2020) 41, no. 8, 721–726, https://doi.org/10.1097/mnm.0000000000001210.
10.1097/MNM.0000000000001210
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
292 Jha P., Arora G., Shamim S. A. et al., Lutetium-177 Tin Colloid Radiosynovectomy in Patients With Inflammatory Knee Joint Conditions Intractable to Prevailing Therapy, Nuclear Medicine Communications. (2018) 39, no. 9, 803–808, https://doi.org/10.1097/mnm.0000000000000871, 2-s2.0-85052202158.
10.1097/MNM.0000000000000871
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
293 Shinto A. S., Kamaleshwaran K. K., Chakraborty S. et al., Radiosynovectomy of Painful Synovitis of Knee Joints Due to Rheumatoid Arthritis by Intra-Articular Administration of ¹⁷⁷Lu-Labeled Hydroxyapatite Particulates: First Human Study and Initial Indian Experience, World Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (2015) 14, no. 02, 81–88, https://doi.org/10.4103/1450-1147.153908.
10.4103/1450-1147.153908
PubMed Google Scholar
294 Chakravarty R., Dash A., and Pillai M. R. A., Availability of Yttrium-90 From Strontium-90: a Nuclear Medicine Perspective, Cancer Biotherapy & Radiopharmaceuticals. (2012) 27, no. 10, 621–641, https://doi.org/10.1089/cbr.2012.1285, 2-s2.0-84870774227.
10.1089/cbr.2012.1285
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
295 Kamaleshwaran K. K., Rajan D., Krishnan B. et al., Use of Yttrium-90 Hydroxyapatite Radiosynovectomy as a Primary Modality of Treatment in Diffuse Pigmented Villonodular Synovitis of the Knee Joint: A First Case Report, Indian Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (2015) 30, no. 1, 47–50, https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-3919.147539, 2-s2.0-84920275046.
10.4103/0972-3919.147539
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
296 Badiavas K., Chatzopoulos D., and Markou P., Radiation Doses from Patients Undergoing Yttrium-90 Silicate Knee Radiosynovectomy, Hellenic Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (2006) 9, no. 1, 65–68.
PubMed Google Scholar
297 Beer T. C., Crawley J. C., Farran H. E., and Gumpel J. M., Preliminary Assessment of ⁹⁰Y Ferric Hydroxide Colloid, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (1973) 32, 41–42, https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.32.suppl.41, 2-s2.0-0015822693.
10.1136/ard.32.Suppl.41
PubMed Google Scholar
298 Chatzopoulos D., Moralidis E., Markou P., and Makris V., Yttrium-90 Radiation Synovectomy in Knee Osteoarthritis: A Prospective Assessment at 6 and 12 Months, Nuclear Medicine Communications. (2009) 30, 472–479, https://doi.org/10.1097/mnm.0b013e32832b52b9, 2-s2.0-67649649732.
10.1097/MNM.0b013e32832b52b9
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
299 Chrapko B., Zwolak R., Nocuń A., Gołębiewska R., and Majdan M., Radiation Synovectomy With ⁹⁰Y Colloid in the Therapy of Recurrent Knee Joint Effusions in Patients With Inflammatory Joint Diseases, Rheumatology International. (2007) 27, no. 8, 729–734, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00296-006-0283-4, 2-s2.0-34248221700.
10.1007/s00296-006-0283-4
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
300 Davis M. A. and Chinol M., Radiopharmaceuticals for Radiationsynovectomy: Evaluation of Twoyttrium-90 Particulate Agents, Journal of Nuclear Medicine. (1989) 30, no. 6, 1047–1055.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
301 Dawson T. M., Ryan P. F., Street A. M. et al., Yttrium Synovectomy in Haemophilic Arthropathy, Rheumatology. (1994) 33, no. 4, 351–356, https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/33.4.351, 2-s2.0-0028201790.
10.1093/rheumatology/33.4.351
CAS Google Scholar
302 Dunscombe P. B., Bhattacharyya A. K., and Dale R. G., The Assessment of the Body Distribution of Yttrium-90 Ferric Hydroxide During Radiation Synovectomy, British Journal of Radiology. (1976) 49, no. 580, 372–373, https://doi.org/10.1259/0007-1285-49-580-372, 2-s2.0-0017228636.
10.1259/0007-1285-49-580-372
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
303 Doyle D. V., Glass J. S., Gow P. J., Daker M., and Grahame R., A Clinical and Prospective Chromosomal Study Ofyttrium-90 Synovectomy, Rheumatology. (1977) 16, no. 4, 217–222, https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/16.4.217, 2-s2.0-0017701064.
10.1093/rheumatology/16.4.217
CAS Google Scholar
304 Gumpel J. M., Hasp R., and Loewi G., Comparison of ⁹⁰Y Ferric Hydroxide Colloid With the Citrate and Resin Colloids. A Preliminary Animal Study, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (1973) 32, 11–12, https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.32.suppl.11, 2-s2.0-0015745189.
10.1136/ard.32.Suppl.11
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
305 Heuft-Dorenbosch L. L., de Vet H. C., and van der Linden S., Yttrium Radiosynoviorthesis in the Treatment of Knee Arthritis in Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Systematic Review, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (2000) 59, no. 8, 583–586, https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.59.8.583, 2-s2.0-0033867566.
10.1136/ard.59.8.583
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
306 Jacob R., Smith T., Prakasha B., and Joannides T., Yttrium-90 Synovectomy in the Management of Chronic Knee Arthritis: a Single Institution Experience, Rheumatology International. (2003) 23, no. 5, 216–220, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00296-003-0295-2, 2-s2.0-0141923185.
10.1007/s00296-003-0295-2
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
307 Jahangier Z. N., Jacobs K. M. G., Bijlsma J. W. J., and Lafeber F. P. J. G., Radiation Synovectomy With Yttrium-90 for Persisting Arthritis Has Direct Harmful Effects on Human Cartilage that Cannot Be Prevented by Co-Administration of Glucocorticoids: an In Vitro Study, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (2006) 65, no. 10, 1384–1389, https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.2005.045989, 2-s2.0-33750355464.
10.1136/ard.2005.045989
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
308 van Kasteren M. E., Nováková I. R., Boerbooms A. M. T., and Lemmens J. A. M., Long Term Follow Up of Radiosynovectomy With Yttrium-90 Silicate in Haemophilic Haemarthrosis, Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. (1993) 52, no. 7, 548–550, https://doi.org/10.1136/ard.52.7.548, 2-s2.0-0027203194.
10.1136/ard.52.7.548
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
309 Khalid M. and Mushtaq A., Preparation and In Vitro Stability of (N,γ) Yttrium-90 Hydroxyapatite, Applied Radiation and Isotopes. (2005) 62, no. 4, 587–590, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2004.08.046, 2-s2.0-13444309167.
10.1016/j.apradiso.2004.08.046
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
310 Oka M., Radiation Synovectomy of the Rheumatoid Knee with Yttrium 90, Annals of Clinical Research. (1975) 7, no. 3, 205–210.
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
311 Öztemür Z., Bulut O., Korkmaz M. et al., Surgical Synovectomy Combined With Yttrium 90 in Patients With Recurrent Joint Synovitis, Rheumatology International. (2013) 33, no. 5, 1321–1326, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00296-012-2540-z, 2-s2.0-84878014543.
10.1007/s00296-012-2540-z
PubMed Google Scholar
312 O’Doherty J., Clauss R., Scuffham J., and Khan A., Lipoma Arborescens Successfully Treated With ⁹⁰Y Synovectomy, Clinical Nuclear Medicine. (2014) 39, no. 2, e187–e189, https://doi.org/10.1097/rlu.0000000000000317.
10.1097/RLU.0000000000000317
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
313 Shabat S., Kollender Y., Merimsky O. et al., The Use of Surgery and Yttrium 90 in the Management of Extensive and Diffuse Pigmented Villonodular Synovitis of Large Joints, Rheumatology. (2002) 41, no. 10, 1113–1118, https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/41.10.1113.
10.1093/rheumatology/41.10.1113
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
314 Stucki G., Bozzone P., Treuer E., Wassmer P., and Felder M., Efficacy and Safety of Radiationsynovectomy With Yttrium-90: A Retrospective Long-Term Analysis of 164 Applications in 82 Patients, Rheumatology. (1993) 32, no. 5, 383–386, https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/32.5.383, 2-s2.0-0027271938.
10.1093/rheumatology/32.5.383
CAS Google Scholar
315 Schmid E., Selbach H. J., Voth M. et al., The Effect of the Beta-Emitting Yttrium-90 Citrate on the Dose-Response of Dicentric Chromosomes in Human Lymphocytes: A Basis for Biological Dosimetry after Radiosynoviorthesis, Radiation and Environmental Biophysics. (2006) 45, no. 2, 93–98, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00411-006-0045-4, 2-s2.0-33745833043.
10.1007/s00411-006-0045-4
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
316 Taylor W. J., Corkill M. M., and Rajapaske C. N., A Retrospective Review of Yttrium-90 Synovectomy in the Treatment of Knee Arthritis, Rheumatology. (1997) 36, no. 10, 1100–1105, https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/36.10.1100.
10.1093/rheumatology/36.10.1100
CAS Google Scholar
317 Teyssler P., Kolostova K., and Bobek V., Radionuclide Synovectomy in Haemophilic Joints, Nuclear Medicine Communications. (2013) 34, no. 4, 291–297, https://doi.org/10.1097/mnm.0b013e32835ed50c, 2-s2.0-84874929603.
10.1097/MNM.0b013e32835ed50c
PubMed Google Scholar
318 Thomas S., Gabriel M. C., de Souza S. A. et al., ⁹⁰Yttrium-hydroxyapatite: A New Therapeutic Option for Radioactive Synovectomy in Haemophilic Synovitis, Haemophilia. (2011) 17, no. 5, e985–e989, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2516.2011.02497.x, 2-s2.0-80051961127.
10.1111/j.1365-2516.2011.02497.x
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
319 Turkmen C., Ozturk S., Unal S. N. et al., The Genotoxic Effects in Lymphocyte Cultures of Children Treated With Radiosynovectomy by Using Yttrium-90 Citrate Colloid, Cancer Biotherapy and Radiopharmaceuticals. (2007) 22, no. 3, 393–399, https://doi.org/10.1089/cbr.2006.328, 2-s2.0-34447579952.
10.1089/cbr.2006.328
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
320 Wong Y., Cherk M. H., Powell A. E., Cicuttini F. M., Bailey M. J., and Kalff V., Efficacy of Yttrium-90 Synovectomy Across a Spectrum of Arthropathies in an Era of Improved Disease Modifying Drugs and Treatment Protocols, International Journal of Rheumatic Diseases. (2014) 17, no. 1, 78–83, https://doi.org/10.1111/1756-185x.12182, 2-s2.0-84893706658.
10.1111/1756-185X.12182
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
321 Wiss D. A., Recurrent Villonodular Synovitis of the Knee. Successful Treatment With Yttrium-90, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research. (1982) 169, 139–144, https://doi.org/10.1097/00003086-198209000-00018.
10.1097/00003086-198209000-00018
PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
322 Voth M., Klett R., Lengsfeld P., Stephan G., and Schmid E., Biological Dosimetry After Yttrium-90 Citrate Colloid Radiosynoviorthesis, Nuklearmedizin. (2006) 45, no. 5, 223–228, https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1625224.
10.1055/s-0038-1625224
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
323 Kampen W. U., Hellweg L., Massoudi-Nickel S., Czech N., Brenner W., and Henze E., Clinical Efficacy of Radiation Synovectomy in Digital Joint Osteoarthritis, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging. (2005) 32, no. 5, 575–580, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00259-004-1712-9, 2-s2.0-24044515591.
10.1007/s00259-004-1712-9
PubMed Google Scholar
324 Caballero Motta L. R., Anzola Alfaro A. M., Janta I. et al., Radiosynovectomy in Routine Care: an Old Tool With Modern Applications, Therapeutic Advances in Musculoskeletal Disease. (2021) 13, no. 13, https://doi.org/10.1177/1759720X211055309.
10.1177/1759720X211055309
PubMed Google Scholar
325 Zalewska J., Węgierska M., Barczyńska T., Waszczak M., Żuchowski P., and Jeka S., Efficacy of Radiation Synovectomy (Radiosynovectomy or Radiosynoviorthesis) With Yttrium-90 in Exudative Inflammation of Synovial Membrane of Knee Joints in Patients With Rheumatic Diseases-Preliminary Report, Reumatologia. (2016) 54, no. 1, 3–9, https://doi.org/10.5114/reum.2016.58754, 2-s2.0-84962184568.
10.5114/reum.2016.58754
PubMed Google Scholar

All articles

Radiation Synovectomy: An Enticing Treatment Option for Inflammatory Joint Pain

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Pathophysiology of Synovial Joints and Synovitis

2.1. Synovial Joints

2.2. Synovitis

2.3. Pathogenesis

3. Strategies Evolved for the Management of Joint Disorder

4. RSV

4.1. Mechanism of Action

4.2. Selection of Radiopharmaceutical

4.3. Key Steps Involved in Radiopharmaceutical Development

4.4. Microparticle for RSV

4.4.1. Selection of Microparticles

4.4.2. Size of the Microparticles

4.4.3. Microparticles Commonly Used in the Preparation of RSV Agents

4.4.3.1. Glass

4.4.3.2. Chitosan

4.4.3.3. Silicate

4.4.3.4. Citrate

4.4.3.5. Sulfide

4.4.3.6. Polylactic Acid (PLA)

4.4.3.7. Hydroxyapatite (HA) [Ca10 (PO4)6 (OH)2]

4.5. Preparation of Radiolabeled Particles for RSV

4.5.1. Radiolabeling During the Particle Preparation

4.5.2. Radiolabeling Particles After Their Preparation

4.5.2.1. Neutron Activation of Preformed Particles

4.5.2.2. Reaction of Radionuclide With Particles

4.6. Radionuclide for RSV

4.6.1. Gold-198

4.6.2. Dysprosium-165

4.6.3. Erbium-169

4.6.4. Phosphorus-32

4.6.5. Holmium-166

4.6.6. Samarium-153

4.6.7. Rhenium-186

4.6.8. Rhenium-188

4.6.9. Lutetium-177

4.6.10. Yttrium-90

5. Limitations of RSV

6. Regulatory Issues of Radiopharmaceuticals Used in RSV for Clinical Use

7. Conclusion and Future Outlook

Conflicts of Interest

Funding

Acknowledgments

Open Research

Data Availability Statement

References

Figures

References

Related

Information

4.4.3.7. Hydroxyapatite (HA) [Ca₁₀ (PO₄)₆ (OH)₂]