2.1. Observed Climate Change Trends

Over the past few decades, East Africa has witnessed a noticeable warming trend. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the region has experienced an average temperature increase of ~0.8°C since the early twentieth century [17] (Table 1). This warming trend is projected to continue, with estimates suggesting a potential increase of 1.8°C to 3.4°C by the end of the century under various emission scenarios [20, 21]. Rainfall patterns have also become increasingly erratic, characterized by unpredictable timing and intensity. While some areas experience more intense rainfall events and flooding, others face prolonged droughts [22, 23]. These shifts in rainfall patterns disrupt planting seasons, affect water availability for crops, and create conditions conducive to the proliferation of plant diseases and pests (Table 1).

Furthermore, the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as droughts, floods, and heat waves, have increased in recent years [24, 25]. These events can have devastating impacts on agriculture, leading to crop failures, livestock losses, and increased vulnerability to pests and diseases. Additionally, climate changes are influencing the dynamics of plant diseases and insect pests, highlighting the effects of altered environmental conditions on agricultural pathogens [26, 27]. In tropical regions and semiarid agroecologies, including northeast Africa, where food security is a priority concern, climate variability and uncertainty tend to be higher, presenting significant risks to agricultural productivity [28]. How a particular agroecological region or a local farming community will cope with climate change depends largely on their ability to create and utilize available knowledge (including indigenous knowledge) and technology, as well as their capacity to adapt effectively to these changes [29].

2.2. Future Climate Projections and Implications for Plant Diseases and Insect Pests

Future climate projections, particularly those generated by reputable models like those used by the IPCC, paint a concerning picture for East Africa, with significant implications for agriculture. These projections suggest an intensification of already observed trends, including warming and rainfall variability, further exacerbating the challenges posed by plant diseases and insect pests.

Temperature: Continued warming stands out as a major threat, creating increasingly favorable conditions for the development and spread of various plant diseases. Higher temperatures have a direct impact on pathogen life cycles, accelerating growth and reproduction rates and increasing the risk of disease outbreaks [26, 30]. This accelerated growth, coupled with potentially weakened plant defenses under heat stress, creates a perfect storm for disease proliferation.

Rainfall: Changes in rainfall patterns, characterized by both droughts and excessive rainfall, introduce further complexity to the equation. Drought stress weakens plants, compromising their natural defenses and making them more vulnerable to opportunistic pathogens and pests [31, 32]. Conversely, excessive rainfall and the resulting high humidity provide ideal conditions for the development and spread of fungal diseases while also creating breeding grounds for certain insect pests. This delicate balance, easily disrupted by climate change, poses a significant challenge for agricultural planning and disease management.

Extreme Events: The projected increase in extreme weather events, such as heat waves and droughts, adds another layer of concern for agricultural systems. Heat stress can directly damage crops, reducing yields and weakening their resilience to diseases and pests. Droughts, on the other hand, can lead to widespread crop failure, creating an opportunity for pest populations to exploit these weakened plants in subsequent seasons. As these extreme events become more frequent and intense, they threaten to disrupt agricultural systems and exacerbate food insecurity [33]. Furthermore, recent findings by the IPCC [17] underscore that climate change will likely involve not only increased temperatures but also changing precipitation patterns, further complicating the agricultural landscape. Overall, the future climate projections for East Africa highlight the urgent need for proactive adaptation and mitigation strategies in agriculture. Addressing the multifaceted challenges posed by plant diseases and insect pests in a changing climate remains crucial for ensuring food security and safeguarding the livelihoods of millions in the region.

2.3. Specific Climate Variables and Their Impacts

Climate change is a complex phenomenon with far-reaching consequences for agriculture, particularly in its influence on plant diseases and pest infestations. This impact is primarily driven by alterations in specific climate variables, each playing a distinct role in shaping the agricultural landscape.

Temperature: Rising temperatures stand out as a primary driver of change, creating increasingly favorable conditions for the proliferation of various plant diseases. Fungal diseases, in particular, exhibit a pronounced response to warmer temperatures. Coffee rust and wheat rust, for example, thrive in warm and humid environments, their life cycles accelerating with each degree rise [34]. This accelerated growth translates to rapid disease development and spread, posing a significant threat to crop yields. Similarly, insect pests, such as the fall armyworm, benefit from warmer temperatures, experiencing shorter life cycles and increased reproduction rates [35]. This results in a greater number of generations per year, amplifying their potential for crop damage.

Humidity: High humidity levels, often exacerbated by changing precipitation patterns, create an ideal breeding ground for a range of plant pathogens, particularly fungi and bacteria. The increased moisture on plant surfaces provides a conducive environment for these pathogens to thrive and infect crops. Coffee berry disease, a major concern for coffee production in East Africa, exemplifies this phenomenon, as its severity is closely linked to periods of high humidity [34]. The moist conditions facilitate spore germination and penetration, increasing the susceptibility of crops to infection.

Wind: Wind acts as a natural dispersal agent, facilitating the long-distance transport of fungal spores and insect pests. Consequently, changes in wind patterns due to climate change can significantly impact the geographical distribution of these agricultural threats. Regions that were once unsuitable for certain pests or diseases, due to temperature or other limiting factors, might become vulnerable as wind-driven dispersal expands their reach [34]. This poses significant challenges for disease management and prevention, as traditional control measures may prove ineffective against newly introduced threats.

As a result, the projected changes in climate, particularly rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, and increased frequency of extreme events, pose significant challenges for agriculture in Ethiopia and East Africa. These changes create favorable conditions for the development and spread of plant diseases and insect pests, threatening food security and livelihoods in the region. Understanding these climate change projections and their implications is crucial for developing effective adaptation and mitigation strategies to ensure the resilience of agriculture in the face of a changing climate.

3.1. The Disease Triangle and Climate Change in East Africa

Plant diseases arise from the complex interaction of pathogens, host plants, and environmental factors. These environmental factors, including temperature, moisture, precipitation, wind, and sunshine, influence the host plant’s availability, growth, and susceptibility to diseases. They also affect the pathogen’s survival, multiplication, spread, and evolution. The “disease triangle” visually represents this interplay. Climate change disrupts this balance by directly influencing each element of the triangle (Figure 1).

Host: Climate change weakens host plants’ defenses, making them more susceptible to infection. Heat stress, for example, can disrupt photosynthesis, reducing the plant’s ability to produce essential defense compounds [37]. This weakened immunity allows pathogens to invade more easily. In Ethiopia, increasing temperatures and erratic rainfall threaten coffee production by increasing the susceptibility of coffee plants to diseases like coffee leaf rust [38].

Pathogen: Climate change directly impacts pathogen survival, growth, reproduction, and dispersal. Warmer temperatures can accelerate pathogen life cycles, leading to more generations per year and increased disease pressure [39]. This accelerated growth can overwhelm plant defenses. Studies in Ethiopia have shown an increase in the frequency of tick and tick-borne diseases, trypanosomiasis, and epidemics of infectious diseases like anthrax and blackleg [40]. Shade trees, while beneficial in some ways, can also modify the microclimate, potentially affecting the growth and dispersal of pathogens and their natural enemies in coffee plantations [41].

Environment: Climate change alters environmental conditions, often creating more favorable environments for pathogen development. Increased temperatures, humidity, and rainfall can create ideal breeding grounds for pathogens, contributing to disease outbreaks [37]. These altered conditions can also weaken host plant defenses. In East Africa, climate change influences the occurrence and transmission of various livestock diseases through multiple pathways, particularly vector-borne diseases like Rift Valley Fever and tick-borne diseases [39]. Ethiopia’s vulnerability to climate change stems from its reliance on climate-sensitive agriculture and the arid and semiarid nature of much of the country, which is highly prone to desertification and drought [42]. Potato bacterial wilt, a devastating disease caused by Ralstonia solanacearum, poses a significant threat to Ethiopian agriculture due to the pathogen’s virulence, wide host range, and persistence in the environment, exacerbated by climate change [43].

Climate change acts as a catalyst, disrupting the disease triangle and favoring the development and spread of plant diseases. This underscores the urgent need for research and strategies to mitigate climate change’s impact on plant health and food security in Ethiopia and East Africa [44]. Further research focusing on specific disease systems and the interplay between climate variables and agricultural production is crucial for developing effective mitigation strategies [37]. Promoting farmer awareness, providing information on changing pathogen biology, implementing shade tree planting strategies, and conducting collaborative scientific research on developing stress-resistant crop varieties are crucial steps toward mitigating the impact of climate change on agriculture in the region [38].

3.2. Specific Plant Diseases in Ethiopia and East Africa

Ethiopia and East Africa are home to a diverse range of crops, many of which are vital for food security and economic stability. Climate change poses a significant threat to these crops by influencing the incidence, severity, and distribution of plant diseases.

Coffee Rust: Coffee rust, caused by the fungus Hemileia vastatrix, is a devastating disease affecting coffee production worldwide, particularly in East Africa. The fungus thrives in warm, humid conditions, and climate change is projected to increase its incidence and severity in the region. Rising temperatures and changes in rainfall patterns are creating more favorable environments for the fungus, leading to more frequent and severe outbreaks [45].

Bacterial Blight: Adding to the woes of coffee farmers, bacterial blight, caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. garcae, has emerged as a serious threat. First reported in Kenya and Uganda in 2008, it has spread to major specialty coffee-producing areas like Sidama and Yirgachefe in Ethiopia [46]. The changing climate could further aggravate the spread and impact of this disease (Figure 2).

Wheat Rust: Wheat rust, caused by various species of the fungus Puccinia, is a significant threat to wheat production globally, including in East Africa. Climate change is influencing the distribution and severity of wheat rust by altering wind patterns, which can transport rust spores over long distances, and by creating more favorable conditions for fungal growth and development [24] (Figure 3).

Maize Lethal Necrosis: Maize lethal necrosis, a devastating viral disease affecting maize production in East Africa, is being exacerbated by climate change. The disease is caused by a combination of two viruses, maize chlorotic mottle virus and sugarcane mosaic virus. Climate change is thought to be increasing the prevalence and distribution of insect vectors that transmit these viruses. Additionally, drought stress, often linked to climate change, can weaken maize plants, making them more susceptible to infection [47] (Figure 4).

Pepper Wilt: Pepper, a crucial ingredient in many regional cuisines and a source of income for farmers, is facing increasing pressure from pepper wilt. This disease, caused by Fusarium oxysporum var. vasinfectum, is becoming a major constraint to growing pepper in western Ethiopia, causing high yield losses and expanding its reach. A recent study by Tesfaye et al. [48] highlighted the increasing incidence of pepper wilt in Ethiopia and linked it to changing climatic conditions, particularly rising temperatures and erratic rainfall patterns (Figure 5).

As a result (call for action), climate change is clearly exacerbating the threat of plant diseases in Ethiopia and East Africa, jeopardizing food security and livelihoods. Addressing this challenge requires a multipronged approach, including developing disease-resistant crop varieties, implementing integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, strengthening regional collaborations to monitor and respond to emerging disease threats, and investing in research to better understand and adapt to the evolving dynamics of plant diseases in a changing climate.

3.3. Climate Change Impacts and Specific Examples

Climate change is poised to significantly impact plant diseases in Ethiopia and East Africa, leading to increased incidence and severity, shifts in geographical distribution, and the emergence of new diseases. These changes pose a significant threat to food security and agricultural livelihoods in the region. One of the most concerning impacts is the projected increase in the incidence and severity of many plant diseases. Rising temperatures, coupled with changes in rainfall patterns, can create more favorable conditions for pathogen development and spread. For instance, a study by Ghini et al. [49] found that rising temperatures are likely to increase the severity of coffee berry disease in Ethiopia, a significant threat to the country’s coffee production. This disease, caused by the fungus Colletotrichum kahawae, thrives in warm, humid conditions, which are becoming more prevalent in coffee-growing regions due to climate change. Furthermore, climate change can alter the geographical distribution of plant diseases, as pathogens and their vectors expand their ranges into new areas. Warmer temperatures can allow disease-causing organisms to survive in regions that were previously too cold, leading to the spread of diseases into new areas. For example, warmer temperatures are allowing coffee berry disease to spread to higher altitudes in East Africa, threatening previously unaffected coffee-growing regions [50]. This expansion of the disease’s range poses a significant challenge to coffee farmers in these regions, who may not be familiar with the disease or have the resources to manage it effectively.

Adding to these challenges, climate change can create conditions that favor the emergence of new plant diseases or the introduction of diseases from other regions. The increased movement of people and goods, coupled with changing environmental conditions, increases the risk of introducing new pathogens to vulnerable crops. A recent study by Meyer et al. [51] highlighted the increasing risk of transboundary plant disease outbreaks due to climate change, emphasizing the need for enhanced surveillance and early warning systems. As a result, climate change is creating a complex and evolving landscape of plant disease risks in Ethiopia and East Africa. Addressing these challenges will require a multifaceted approach, including developing disease-resistant crop varieties, implementing IPM strategies, and strengthening regional collaborations to monitor and respond to emerging disease threats.

4.1. General Mechanisms

Climate change is having a profound impact on insect populations globally, causing significant shifts in their life cycles, population dynamics, and geographical distributions. These changes carry significant implications for agriculture, given the crucial roles insects play as pollinators, decomposers, and, significantly, pests. A key factor driving these changes is the fact that insects are ectotherms, meaning their body temperatures are largely regulated by their surrounding environment. Consequently, temperature plays a critical role in their development, metabolism, and behavior. As global temperatures rise due to climate change, insect populations are experiencing a cascade of effects. One of the most direct impacts is on insect developmental rates. Warmer temperatures generally accelerate insect development, leading to shorter generation times and potentially more generations per year [52]. This accelerated development can result in rapid population growth, increasing the pressure from insect pests on agricultural systems. For example, a study by Jones, Smith, and Patel [53] found that rising temperatures have led to a significant increase in the number of generations per year for a particular species of aphid, a common agricultural pest, resulting in increased crop damage.

Climate change is also influencing the overwintering success of many insect species. Milder winters, another consequence of climate change, can enhance the survival rates of overwintering insects [54]. This increased survival can lead to larger pest populations emerging in the spring, potentially causing more significant crop damage. This is particularly concerning for regions that typically experience harsh winters, as milder temperatures allow pest species to survive that would have otherwise perished. Furthermore, the delicate timing between insect pests and their host plants, crucial for their survival and reproduction, can be disrupted by climate change [55]. If insects emerge before their host plants are available, they may face starvation or be forced to seek alternative, potentially less suitable, hosts. This mismatch can have cascading effects on both insect populations and agricultural ecosystems. For instance, changes in the timing of flowering for certain crops due to altered temperature and precipitation patterns can disrupt the life cycles of pollinating insects, potentially impacting yields. Overall, climate change is significantly altering the dynamics of insect populations, with potentially far-reaching consequences for agriculture. Understanding these complex interactions and developing adaptive strategies will be crucial for mitigating the negative impacts of climate change on agricultural systems and ensuring food security in a changing world.

4.2. Specific Insect Pests in Ethiopia and East Africa

East Africa faces a significant threat from the increasing impact of climate change on insect pests, particularly given the region’s heavy reliance on agriculture for livelihoods and food security.

Desert Locust: The desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria), a migratory pest capable of forming massive swarms, decimates crops and pastures across vast areas [61, 62]. Locust outbreaks can have devastating consequences, leading to food shortages and economic losses. Climate change is expected to exacerbate this threat by increasing the frequency and intensity of outbreaks. Warmer temperatures accelerate locust development and reproduction, while changes in rainfall patterns can create favorable breeding conditions, providing more opportunities for these pests to thrive [63].

Fall Armyworm: Another invasive pest that has gained a foothold in East Africa is the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda). Originally from the Americas, this pest has rapidly spread across the region, causing significant damage to maize and other staple crops. The fall armyworm’s voracious appetite and ability to reproduce quickly make it a formidable threat to food security in the region. Climate change is likely to exacerbate this threat, as warmer temperatures allow the pest to survive year-round in some areas, increasing its reproductive potential and geographical range [64]. It is also important to consider the impact of the fall armyworm on agricultural systems in Africa. The fall armyworm has caused significant damage to various crops, leading to concerns about food security and agricultural productivity on the continent. As noted by Day, Kumela, and Kering [65], the implications of this pest extend beyond immediate crop losses, affecting livelihoods and economic stability in affected regions.

Coffee Berry Borer: Coffee, a crucial cash crop for many East African countries, faces a separate challenge: the coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei). This small beetle burrows into coffee berries, damaging the beans and reducing both yield and quality [66]. The relationship between climate change and the coffee berry borer is complex. While warmer temperatures might initially benefit the pest [45], shifts in rainfall and increased drought stress on coffee plants could, conversely, limit population growth [67]. This illustrates the intricate interplay between climate change, pest dynamics, and agricultural practices. The potential for range shifts in East Africa under changing climate scenarios further complicates the issue [45]. The overall impact of climate change on coffee production is predicted to be severe, with the potential for significant disruptions to the industry [68]. Furthermore, the increasing prevalence of pests like the coffee berry borer coupled with the changing climate poses a substantial risk to the genetic diversity of coffee, particularly wild Arabica species [38, 68].

Mango White Scale: Adding to the woes of farmers in western Ethiopia, a new invasive pest has emerged—the mango white scale (Aulacaspis tubercularis) (Figure 6). This pest has been observed to cause significant damage to mango orchards, threatening the livelihoods of mango farmers in the region. The mango white scale infests mango trees, sucking sap from the leaves and fruits, weakening the trees, and reducing fruit yield and quality [69]. The mango white scale infests mango trees, sucking sap from the leaves and fruits, weakening the trees, and reducing fruit yield and quality. The infestation also poses a significant threat to the export market. Ethiopia, with its favorable climate for mango production, has the potential to become a major player in the global mango market. However, the presence of mango white scale could hinder this potential by reducing the quality and quantity of exportable mangoes. This could lead to economic losses for both farmers and the country as a whole.

As a result, the increasing prevalence of insect pests and parasitic plants due to climate change poses a significant threat to agriculture and food security in East Africa. The desert locust, fall armyworm, coffee berry borer, and mango white scale are just a few examples of pests that are already having a devastating impact on crops vital to the region’s economy and sustenance. Climate change acts as a threat multiplier, exacerbating the challenges posed by these pests. Warmer temperatures, changes in rainfall patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events create more favorable conditions for pest proliferation and spread. This complex interplay between climate change and pest dynamics necessitates a multifaceted approach to mitigate the risks.

East Africa faces a critical need for a multifaceted strategy to combat the rising tide of agricultural pests. Firstly, this strategy begins with establishing early warning systems and meticulous monitoring programs, akin to a vigilant neighborhood to watch, detect, and track pest outbreaks. Secondly, a strategic shift toward IPM is essential. This approach emphasizes a combination of tactics, such as introducing natural predators of pests, cultivating pest-resistant crop varieties, and employing pesticides only as a last resort. Thirdly, empowering farmers to adapt to the changing climate is crucial. This involves promoting the adoption of drought-tolerant crops and water-conserving farming practices. Finally, investing in research to understand the complex interplay between climate change and pest dynamics is paramount. This research will pave the way for developing innovative and effective control strategies, ensuring long-term solutions. The battle against these pests transcends the boundaries of agriculture; it is a societal imperative. Safeguarding East Africa’s food security and economic stability hinges on effectively mitigating the escalating threat of climate change-driven pest outbreaks.

4.3. Emerging Insect Pests Threaten Food Security in Ethiopia

Ethiopian agriculture faces mounting challenges from emerging insect pests, impacting staple crops and threatening food security across various areas. Field pea bruchid (Bruchus pisorum) is becoming a serious pest of pea in northern Ethiopia (Amhara and Tigray regions). It causes yield loss of up to 85% [70]. Sorghum chaffer (Pachnoda intrrupta) outbreaks have occurred in Amhara and parts of Afar since the late 1990s causing high damage to sorghum. Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) butterfly (Acraea acerata) has become the most important pest of sweet potato in the southern part of Ethiopia since the 1990s [71]. Complete crop failure is now common in many areas of the region where sweet potato is intensively cultivated. The enset (Ensete ventricosum) root mealybug (Cataenococcus ensete) a major pest of enset emerged in recent times (since 1988) and is widely distributed in southern and southwestern Ethiopia [72]. Enset is an important staple food in southern and southwestern Ethiopia. Termites (Microterms spp.) have become the most destructive insects specifically in most degraded, deforested, and revegetated agroecologies. It is also an important emerging pest on several other exotic and native tree species [73]. Cypress (Cupressus lusitanica) aphid, Cinara cupressivora (sucking insect) has become a damaging pest in Africa. In Ethiopia, it has occurred in wider localities since 2003 [74]. The increasing prevalence of these emerging insect pests highlights the urgent need for effective pest management strategies, including early detection, IPM approaches, and research into pest biology and control methods. Addressing these challenges is crucial for safeguarding agricultural productivity, ensuring food security, and protecting the livelihoods of Ethiopian farmers.

4.4. Climate Change Impacts on Insect Pests: Specific Examples in East Africa

Climate change casts a long shadow over global agriculture, and its impact on insect pest dynamics is a growing concern, particularly in vulnerable regions like East Africa. Rising temperatures, shifting rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events create a complex web of factors that can significantly alter pest behavior, abundance, and distribution. One of the most alarming consequences of climate change is the projected increase in pest abundance and outbreaks. As temperatures rise, many insects’ species experience accelerated metabolic rates and shorter generation times, leading to rapid population growth [58]. This phenomenon is exemplified by the African armyworm, a voracious pest that wreaks havoc on maize and other staple crops. Studies have shown that rising temperatures are likely to increase the armyworm’s population growth rate, leading to more frequent and severe outbreaks [75]. Furthermore, climate change can disrupt natural pest control mechanisms, making outbreaks even more difficult to manage. For instance, a recent study highlighted the link between warming trends in the Indian Ocean and the surge in desert locust outbreaks across East Africa [58]. These outbreaks have had devastating consequences, decimating crops and pastures, and pushing millions to the brink of starvation.

Addressing the challenges posed by climate change on insect pests requires a multifaceted approach, including developing climate-resilient farming practices, strengthening pest monitoring and early warning systems, and investing in research to better understand and predict the impacts of climate change on insect populations.

5.1. Synergistic Effects on Crop Production

Climate change, with its associated shifts in temperature and precipitation patterns, can significantly impact the delicate balance of ecosystems, leading to increased vulnerability to pests and diseases. For instance, drought-stressed pine trees become easy targets for pine beetles, which then introduce blue stain fungus, further weakening the trees and often resulting in widespread mortality. Similarly, warmer temperatures can create favorable conditions for rust fungus in wheat crops while simultaneously boosting aphid populations. These aphids, as they feed, can transmit the fungal spores, exacerbating the disease and compounding yield losses. The management of soilborne diseases is further complicated by the increasing prevalence of disease epidemics, the rise of fungicide resistance, and growing environmental concerns [84].

As a result, managing the combined effects of climate change, plant diseases, and insect pests requires integrated and adaptive strategies. This includes developing climate-resilient crop varieties, implementing sustainable pest and disease management practices, improving monitoring and early warning systems, and fostering international collaboration [37, 80, 85]. Developing models that address climate change, disease development, and impacts at different scales can also support efforts to manage the synergistic effects of these factors [37]. As climate change continues, these integrated strategies will be crucial for ensuring global food security.

5.2. The Need for IPM in a Changing Climate

IPM offers a multitude of benefits, contributing to a more sustainable and productive agricultural landscape. By addressing multiple threats concurrently and preventing outbreaks, IPM minimizes crop losses, thereby enhancing food security through stable food production [88]. The sustainable practices inherent in IPM, such as promoting natural enemies [89] and employing a combination of methods [90, 91], minimize negative environmental impacts. Furthermore, the reduced reliance on synthetic pesticides in IPM protects the health of both farm workers and consumers [92]. This holistic approach, considering ecological and economic factors [92], optimizes pest control across various classes, including insects, pathogens, vertebrates, and weeds [90], contributing to a healthier and more secure food system. Growers and farmers, in particular, stand to gain significantly from effective IPM programs, especially given the increasing challenges with traditional insecticide-based control methods [89]. IPM truly represents a shift toward a more sustainable and responsible approach to pest management, with benefits extending from the individual farm to the global food supply. As a result, by understanding and addressing the complex interplay between climate change, plant diseases, and insect pests, and by implementing comprehensive IPM strategies, sustainable methods to protect crops and ensure global food security in a changing world can be developed [35, 86]. Focusing on local needs [31], assessing farmer perceptions [93], and supporting international cooperation [75] are vital for developing effective IPM programs.

6.1. Adaptation Measures

Farmers need to adopt a multifaceted approach to adapt to the increasing challenges posed by climate change on plant diseases and insect pests. Some of the key adaptation strategies are as follows:

6.2. Mitigation Measures in Agriculture

Agriculture is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, but it also has the potential to play a crucial role in climate change mitigation [103]. Some of the key mitigation strategies are as follows: