Sleep and Metabolism: An Overview
This article is part of Special Issue:
Sunil Sharma,
Mani Kavuru,
Corresponding Author
Sunil Sharma
Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Brody School of Medicine, Greenville, 27834 NC, USA ecu.edu
Search for more papers by this authorMani Kavuru
Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Brody School of Medicine, Greenville, 27834 NC, USA ecu.edu
Search for more papers by this authorSunil Sharma,
Mani Kavuru,
Corresponding Author
Sunil Sharma
Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Brody School of Medicine, Greenville, 27834 NC, USA ecu.edu
Search for more papers by this authorMani Kavuru
Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Brody School of Medicine, Greenville, 27834 NC, USA ecu.edu
Search for more papers by this authorAcademic Editor: Jessica A. Mong
Abstract
Sleep and its disorders are increasingly becoming important in our sleep deprived society. Sleep is intricately connected to various hormonal and metabolic processes in the body and is important in maintaining metabolic homeostasis. Research shows that sleep deprivation and sleep disorders may have profound metabolic and cardiovascular implications. Sleep deprivation, sleep disordered breathing, and circadian misalignment are believed to cause metabolic dysregulation through myriad pathways involving sympathetic overstimulation, hormonal imbalance, and subclinical inflammation. This paper reviews sleep and metabolism, and how sleep deprivation and sleep disorders may be altering human metabolism.
References
- 1 Webb W. B. and Agnew H. W., Are we chronically sleep deprived?, Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society. (1975) 6.
- 2 National Sleep Foundation, Sleep in America Poll2003, 2003, National Sleep Foundation, Washington, DC, USA.
- 3 National Center for Health Statistics, QuickStats: percentage of adults who reported an average of 66 h of sleep per 24-h period, by sex and age group -United States, 1985 and 2004, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 2005.
- 4 Siegel J. M., Sleep, Encarta Encyclopedia, 1999-present.
- 5 Ohayon M. M., Carskadon M. A., Guilleminault C., and Vitiello M. V., Meta-analysis of quantitative sleep parameters from childhood to old age in healthy individuals: developing normative sleep values across the human lifespan, Sleep. (2004) 27, no. 7, 1255–1273, 2-s2.0-14644409106.
- 6 Siegel J. M., Why we sleep, Scientific American. (2003) 289, no. 5, 92–97, 2-s2.0-0142139151.
- 7 Ramanathan L., Gulyani S., Nienhuis R., and Siegel J. M., Sleep deprivation decreases superoxide dismutase activity in rat hippocampus and brainstem, NeuroReport. (2002) 13, no. 11, 1387–1390, 2-s2.0-0037036899.
- 8 Brebbia D. R. and Altshuler K. Z., Oxygen consumption rate and electroencephalographs stage of sleep, Science. (1965) 150, no. 3703, 1621–1623, 2-s2.0-0013850564.
- 9 Goldberg G. R., Prentice A. M., Davies H. L., and Murgatroyd P. R., Overnight and basal metabolic rates in men and women, European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. (1988) 42, no. 2, 137–144, 2-s2.0-0023860355.
- 10 Van Cauter E., Polonsky K. S., and Scheen A. J., Roles of circadian rhythmicity and sleep in human glucose regulation, Endocrine Reviews. (1997) 18, no. 5, 716–738, 2-s2.0-0030880740, https://doi.org/10.1210/er.18.5.716.
- 11 Van Cauter E., Kerkhofs M., Caufriez A., Van Onderbergen A., Thorner M. O., and Copinschi G., A quantitative estimation of growth hormone secretion in normal man: reproducibility and relation to sleep and time of day, Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. (1992) 74, no. 6, 1441–1450, 2-s2.0-0026771188, https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.74.6.1441.
- 12 Van Cauter E. and Turck F. W., L. J. DeGoot, Endocrine and other biological rhythms, Endocrinology, 1994, Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa, USA, 2487–2548.
- 13 Scheen A. J., Byrne M. M., Plat L., Leproult R., and Van Cauter E., Relationships between sleep quality and glucose regulation in normal humans, American Journal of Physiology. (1996) 271, no. 2, E261–E270, 2-s2.0-0029782766.
- 14 Leproult R., Copinschi G., Buxton O., and Van Cauter E., Sleep loss results in an elevation of cortisol levels the next evening, Sleep. (1997) 20, no. 10, 865–870, 2-s2.0-0030735197.
- 15 Hampton S. M., Morgan L. M., Lawrence N., Anastasiadou T., Norris F., Deacon S., Ribeiro D., and Arendt J., Postprandial hormone and metabolic responses in simulated shift work, Journal of Endocrinology. (1996) 151, no. 2, 259–267, 2-s2.0-0029908289.
- 16 Ribeiro D. C. O., Hampton S. M., Morgan L., Deacon S., and Arendt J., Altered postprandial hormone and metabolic responses in a simulated shift work environment, Journal of Endocrinology. (1998) 158, no. 3, 305–310, 2-s2.0-0031708106.
- 17 Spiegel K., Leproult R., and Van Cauter E., C. Kushida, Metabolic and endocrine changes, Sleep Deprivation: Basic Science, Physiology, and Behavior, 2005, 192, Marcel Dekker, New York, NY, USA, 293–318.
- 18 Spiegel K., Leproult R., Colecchia E. F., L′Hermite-Balériaux M., Nie Z., Copinschi G., and Van Cauter E., Adaptation of the 24-h growth hormone profile to a state of sleep debt, American Journal of Physiology. (2000) 279, no. 3, R874–R883, 2-s2.0-0033830382.
- 19 VanHelder T., Symons J. D., and Radomski M. W., Effects of sleep deprivation and exercise on glucose tolerance, Aviation Space and Environmental Medicine. (1993) 64, no. 6, 487–492, 2-s2.0-0027301286.
- 20
Spiegel K., Leproult R., and Van Cauter E., Impact of sleep debt on metabolic and endocrine function, The Lancet. (1999) 354, no. 9188, 1435–1439, 2-s2.0-0033598598, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(99)01376-8.
10.1016/S0140-6736(99)01376-8 Google Scholar
- 21 Spiegel K., Knutson K., Leproult R., Tasali E., and Van Cauter E., Sleep loss: a novel risk factor for insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes, Journal of Applied Physiology. (2005) 99, no. 5, 2008–2019, 2-s2.0-27544478983, https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00660.2005.
- 22 Spiegel K., Leproult R., L′Hermite-Balériaux M., Copinschi G., Penev P. D., and Van Cauter E., Leptin levels are dependent on sleep duration: relationships with sympathovagal balance, carbohydrate regulation, cortisol, and thyrotropin, Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. (2004) 89, no. 11, 5762–5771, 2-s2.0-8744298444, https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2004-1003.
- 23 Vgontzas A. N., Zoumakis E., Bixler E. O., Lin H.-M., Follett H., Kales A., and Chrousos G. P., Adverse effects of modest sleep restriction on sleepiness, performance, and inflammatory cytokines, Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. (2004) 89, no. 5, 2119–2126, 2-s2.0-2442516101, https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2003-031562.
- 24 Shearer W. T., Reuben J. M., Mullington J. M., Price N. J., Lee B.-N., Smith E. O., Szuba M. P., Van Dongen H. P. A., and Dinges D. F., Soluble TNF-α receptor 1 and IL-6 plasma levels in humans subjected to the sleep deprivation model of spaceflight, Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. (2001) 107, no. 1, 165–170, 2-s2.0-0035139518, https://doi.org/10.1067/mai.2001.112270.
- 25 Meier-Ewert H. K., Ridker P. M., Rifai N., Regan M. M., Price N. J., Dinges D. F., and Mullington J. M., Effect of sleep loss on C-reactive protein, an inflammatory marker of cardiovascular risk, Journal of the American College of Cardiology. (2004) 43, no. 4, 678–683, 2-s2.0-1242295176, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2003.07.050.
- 26 Amos A. F., McCarty D. J., and Zimmet P., The rising global burden of diabetes and its complications: estimates and projections to the year 2010, Diabetic Medicine. (1997) 14, no. 12, supplement 5, S7–S85, 2-s2.0-0031445908.
- 27 Ayas N. T., White D. P., Al-Delaimy W. K., Manson J. E., Stampfer M. J., Speizer F. E., Patel S., and Hu F. B., A prospective study of self-reported sleep duration and incident diabetes in women, Diabetes Care. (2003) 26, no. 2, 380–384, 2-s2.0-0042309750, https://doi.org/10.2337/diacare.26.2.380.
- 28 Mallon L., Broman J.-E., and Hetta J., High incidence of diabetes in men with sleep complaints or short sleep duration: a 12-year follow-up study of a middle-aged population, Diabetes Care. (2005) 28, no. 11, 2762–2767, 2-s2.0-33644799575, https://doi.org/10.2337/diacare.28.11.2762.
- 29 Yaggi H. K., Araujo A. B., and McKinlay J. B., Sleep duration as a risk factor for the development of type 2 diabetes, Diabetes Care. (2006) 29, no. 3, 657–661, 2-s2.0-33744971827.
- 30 Gale S. M., Castracane V. D., and Mantzoros C. S., Energy homeostasis, obesity and eating disorders: recent advances in endocrinology, Journal of Nutrition. (2004) 134, no. 2, 295–298, 2-s2.0-0942279569.
- 31 Chin-Chance C., Polonsky K. S., and Schoeller D. A., Twenty-four-hour leptin levels respond to cumulative short-term energy imbalance and predict subsequent intake, Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. (2000) 85, no. 8, 2685–2691, 2-s2.0-0034456991, https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.85.8.2685.
- 32 Dzaja A., Dalal M. A., Himmerich H., Uhr M., Pollmächer T., and Schuld A., Sleep enhances nocturnal plasma ghrelin levels in healthy subjects, American Journal of Physiology. (2004) 286, no. 6, E963–E967, 2-s2.0-2442691893, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00527.2003.
- 33 Schoeller D. A., Cella L. K., Sinha M. K., and Caro J. F., Entrainment of the diurnal rhythm of plasma leptin to meal timing, Journal of Clinical Investigation. (1997) 100, no. 7, 1882–1887, 2-s2.0-0030885398.
- 34 Alonso-Vale M. I. C., Andreotti S., Peres S. B., Anhê G. F., Borges-Silva C.D.N., Neto J. C., and Lima F. B., [email protected], Melatonin enhances leptin expression by rat adipocytes in the presence of insulin, American Journal of Physiology. (2005) 288, no. 4, E805–E812, 2-s2.0-0037268705, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00478.2004.
- 35 Spiegel K., Leproult R., L′Hermite-Balériaux M., Copinschi G., Penev P. D., and Van Cauter E., Leptin levels are dependent on sleep duration: relationships with sympathovagal balance, carbohydrate regulation, cortisol, and thyrotropin, Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. (2004) 89, no. 11, 5762–5771, 2-s2.0-8744298444, https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2004-1003.
- 36 Spiegel K., Tasali E., Penev P., and Van Cauter E., Brief communication: sleep curtailment in healthy young men is associated with decreased leptin levels, elevated ghrelin levels, and increased hunger and appetite, Annals of Internal Medicine. (2004) 141, no. 11, 846–850, 2-s2.0-10044287245.
- 37 Schmid S. M., Hallschmid M., Jauch-Chara K., Born J., and Schultes B., A single night of sleep deprivation increases ghrelin levels and feelings of hunger in normal-weight healthy men, Journal of Sleep Research. (2008) 17, no. 3, 331–334, 2-s2.0-50049097742, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2869.2008.00662.x.
- 38 Mullington J. M., Chan J. L., Van Dongen H. P. A., Szuba M. P., Samaras J., Price N. J., Meier-Ewert H. K., Dingest D. F., and Mantzoros C. S., Sleep loss reduces diurnal rhythm amplitude of leptin in healthy men, Journal of Neuroendocrinology. (2003) 15, no. 9, 851–854, 2-s2.0-0042422232, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2826.2003.01069.x.
- 39 Nedeltcheva A. V., Kilkus J. M., Imperial J., Kasza K., Schoeller D. A., and Penev P. D., Sleep curtailment is accompanied by increased intake of calories from snacks, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. (2009) 89, no. 1, 126–133, 2-s2.0-58149377540, https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2008.26574.
- 40 Taheri S., Lin L., Austin D., Young T., and Mignot E., Short sleep duration is associated with reduced leptin, elevated ghrelin, and increased body mass index, PLoS Medicine. (2004) 1, no. 3, article e62, 2-s2.0-15744399926.
- 41 Chen K., Li F., Li J., Cai H., Strom S., Bisello A., Kelley D. E., Friedman-Einat M., Skibinski G. A., McCrory M. A., Szalai A. J., and Zhao A. Z., Induction of leptin resistance through direct interaction of C-reactive protein with leptin, Nature Medicine. (2006) 12, no. 4, 425–432, 2-s2.0-33645746168, https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1372.
- 42 Phillips B. G., Kato M., Narkiewicz K., Choe I., and Somers V. K., Increases in leptin levels, sympathetic drive, and weight gain in obstructive sleep apnea, American Journal of Physiology. (2000) 279, no. 1, H234–H237, 2-s2.0-0033862686.
- 43 Laposky A. D., Shelton J., Bass J., Dugovic C., Perrino N., and Turek F. W., Altered sleep regulation in leptin-deficient mice, American Journal of Physiology. (2006) 290, no. 4, R894–R903, 2-s2.0-33646482877, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00304.2005.
- 44 Laposky A. D., Bradley M. A., Williams D. L., Bass J., and Turek F. W., Sleep-wake regulation is altered in leptin-resistant (db/db) genetically obese and diabetic mice, American Journal of Physiology. (2008) 295, no. 6, R2059–R2066, 2-s2.0-57749116199, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00026.2008.
- 45 Siegel J. M., Hypocretin (OREXIN): role in normal behavior and neuropathology, Annual Review of Psychology. (2004) 55, 125–148, 2-s2.0-1842537953, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141545.
- 46 Flier J. S., Obesity wars: molecular progress confronts an expanding epidemic, Cell. (2004) 116, no. 2, 337–350, 2-s2.0-0842324779, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(03)01081-X.
- 47 Date Y., Ueta Y., Yamashita H., Yamaguchi H., Matsukura S., Kangawa K., Sakurai T., Yanagisawa M., and Nakazato M., Orexins, orexigenic hypothalamic peptides, interact with autonomic, neuroendocrine and neuroregulatory systems, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. (1999) 96, no. 2, 748–753, 2-s2.0-0033582175, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.96.2.748.
- 48 Nambu T., Sakurai T., Mizukami K., Hosoya Y., Yanagisawa M., and Goto K., Distribution of orexin neurons in the adult rat brain, Brain Research. (1999) 827, no. 1-2, 243–260, 2-s2.0-0033535747, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-8993(99)01336-0.
- 49 Yamanaka A., Beuckmann C. T., Willie J. T., Hara J., Tsujino N., Mieda M., Tominaga M., Yagami K.-I., Sugiyama F., Goto K., Yanagisawa M., and Sakurai T., Hypothalamic orexin neurons regulate arousal according to energy balance in mice, Neuron. (2003) 38, no. 5, 701–713, 2-s2.0-0038521277, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00331-3.
- 50 Sakurai T., Roles of orexin/hypocretin in regulation of sleep/wakefulness and energy homeostasis, Sleep Medicine Reviews. (2005) 9, no. 4, 231–241, 2-s2.0-22144479803, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2004.07.007.
- 51 Taheri S., Zeitzer J. M., and Mignot E., The role of hypocretins (orexins) in sleep regulation and narcolepsy, Annual Review of Neuroscience. (2002) 25, 283–313, 2-s2.0-0036302041, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142826.
- 52 Honda Y., Doi Y., Ninomiya R., and Ninomiya C., Increased frequency of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus among narcoleptic patients, Sleep. (1986) 9, no. 1, 254–259, 2-s2.0-0022831801.
- 53 Schuld A., Hebebrand J., Geller F., and Pollmacher T., Increased body-mass index in patients with narcolepsy, The Lancet. (2000) 355, no. 9211, 1274–1275, 2-s2.0-0034621042.
- 54 Hara J., Yanagisawa M., and Sakurai T., [email protected], Difference in obesity phenotype between orexin-knockout mice and orexin neuron-deficient mice with same genetic background and environmental conditions, Neuroscience Letters. (2005) 380, no. 3, 239–242, 2-s2.0-18444375874, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2005.01.046.
- 55 Zhang S., Zeitzer J. M., Sakurai T., Nishino S., and Mignot E., Sleep/wake fragmentation disrupts metabolism in a mouse model of narcolepsy, Journal of Physiology. (2007) 581, no. 2, 649–663, 2-s2.0-34249671063, https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2007.129510.
- 56 Tsuneki H., Murata S., Anzawa Y., Soeda Y., Tokai E., Wada T., Kimura I., Yanagisawa M., Sakurai T., and Sasaoka T., Age-related insulin resistance in hypothalamus and peripheral tissues of orexin knockout mice, Diabetologia. (2008) 51, no. 4, 657–667, 2-s2.0-41149089156, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-008-0929-8.
- 57 Patel S. R., Ayas N. T., Malhotra M. R., White D. P., Schernhammer E. S., Speizer F. E., Stampler M. J., and Hu F. B., A prospective study of sleep duration and mortality risk in women, Sleep. (2004) 27, no. 3, 440–444, 2-s2.0-3042579981.
- 58 Cournot M., Ruidavets J.-B., Marquié J.-C., Esquirol Y., Baracat B., and Ferrières J., Environmental factors associated with body mass index in a population of Southern France, European Journal of Cardiovascular Prevention and Rehabilitation. (2004) 11, no. 4, 291–297, 2-s2.0-4344656180, https://doi.org/10.1097/01.hjr.0000129738.22970.62.
- 59 Vioque J., Torres A., and Quiles J., Time spent watching television, sleep duration and obesity in adults living in Valencia, Spain, International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders. (2000) 24, no. 12, 1683–1688, 2-s2.0-0027462562.
- 60 Shigeta H., Shigeta M., Nakazawa A., Nakamura N., and Toshikazu Y., Lifestyle, obesity, and insulin resistance, Diabetes Care. (2001) 24, no. 3, 2-s2.0-0035091877.
- 61 Gangwisch J. E., Malaspina D., Boden-Albala B., and Heymsfield S. B., Inadequate sleep as a risk factor for obesity: analyses of the NHANES I, Sleep. (2005) 28, no. 10, 1289–1296, 2-s2.0-26444483435.
- 62 Patel S. R., Malhotra A., White D. P., Gottlieb D. J., and Hu F. B., Association between reduced sleep and weight gain in women, American Journal of Epidemiology. (2006) 164, no. 10, 947–954, 2-s2.0-33750922390, https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwj280.
- 63 Locard E., Mamelle N., Billette A., Miginiac M., Munoz F., and Rey S., Risk factors of obesity in a five year old population. Parental versus environmental factors, International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders. (1992) 16, no. 10, 721–729.
- 64 Sekine M., Yamagami T., Handa K., Saito T., Nanri S., Kawaminami K., Tokui N., Yoshida K., and Kagamimori S., A dose-response relationship between short sleeping hours and childhood obesity: results of the Toyama birth cohort study, Child: Care, Health and Development. (2002) 28, no. 2, 163–170, 2-s2.0-0036320056, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2214.2002.00260.x.
- 65 Reilly J. J., Armstrong J., Dorosty A. R., Emmett P. M., Ness A., Rogers I., Steer C., and Sherriff A., Early life risk factors for obesity in childhood: cohort study, British Medical Journal. (2005) 330, no. 7504, 1357–1359, 2-s2.0-20544444889, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.38470.670903.E0.
- 66 Rechtschaffen A. and Bergmann B. M., Sleep deprivation in the rat by the disk-over-water method, Behavioural Brain Research. (1995) 69, no. 1-2, 55–63, 2-s2.0-0029046870, https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-4328(95)00020-T.
- 67 Koban M. and Swinson K. L., Chronic REM-sleep deprivation of rats elevates metabolic rate and increases UCP1 gene expression in brown adipose tissue, American Journal of Physiology. (2005) 289, no. 1, E68–E74, 2-s2.0-21044434523, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00543.2004.
- 68 Hipólide D. C., Suchecki D., de Carvalho Pinto A. P., Chiconelli Faria E., Tufik S., and Luz J., Paradoxical sleep deprivation and sleep recovery: effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity, energy balance and body composition of rats, Journal of Neuroendocrinology. (2006) 18, no. 4, 231–238, 2-s2.0-33644647490, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2826.2006.01412.x.
- 69 Patel S. R. and Hu F. B., Short sleep duration and weight gain: a systematic review, Obesity. (2008) 16, no. 3, 643–653, 2-s2.0-40149083872, https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2007.118.
- 70 Lauderdale D. S., Knutson K. L., Yan L. L., Rathouz P. J., Hulley S. B., Sidney S., and Liu K., Objectively measured sleep characteristics among early-middle-aged adults: the CARDIA study, American Journal of Epidemiology. (2006) 164, no. 1, 5–16, 2-s2.0-33745358819, https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwj199.
- 71 Van Den Berg J. F., Knvistingh Neven A., Tulen J. H. M., Hofman A., Witteman J. C. M., Miedema H. M. E., and Tiemeier H., Actigraphic sleep duration and fragmentation are related to obesity in the elderly: the Rotterdam Study, International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders. (2008) 32, no. 7, 1083–1090, 2-s2.0-47249153164, https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2008.57.
- 72 Lauderdale D. S., [email protected], Knutson K. L., Rathouz P. J., Yan L. L., Hulley S. B., and Liu K., Cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between objectively measured sleep duration and body mass index, American Journal of Epidemiology. (2009) 170, no. 7, 805–813, 2-s2.0-0014096147, https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwp230.
- 73 Patel S. R., [email protected], Blackwell T., Redline S., Ancoli-Israel S., Cauley J. A., Hillier T. A., Lewis C. E., Orwoll E. S., Stefanick M. L., Taylor B. C., Yaffe K., and Stone K. L., The association between sleep duration and obesity in older adults, International Journal of Obesity. (2008) 32, no. 12, 1825–1834, 2-s2.0-11844284749, https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2008.198.
- 74 Agras W. S., Hammer L. D., McNicholas F., and Kraemer H. C., Risk factors for childhood overweight: a prospective study from birth to 9.5 years, Journal of Pediatrics. (2004) 145, no. 1, 20–25, 2-s2.0-3242661938, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2004.03.023.
- 75 Lumeng J. C., Somashekar D., Appugliese D., Kaciroti N., Corwyn R. F., and Bradley R. H., Shorter sleep duration is associated with increased risk for being overweight at ages 9 to 12 years, Pediatrics. (2007) 120, no. 5, 1020–1029, 2-s2.0-36048973176, https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-3295.
- 76 Hasler G., Buysse D. J., Klaghofer R., Gamma A., Ajdacic V., Eich D., Rössler W., and Angst J., The association between short sleep duration and obesity in young adults: a 13-year prospective study, Sleep. (2004) 27, no. 4, 661–666, 2-s2.0-3042538917.
- 77 Kryger M. H., Roth T., and Dement W. C., Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine, 2000, W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa, USA.
- 78 Hiestand D. M., Britz P., Goldman M., and Phillips B., Prevalence of symptoms and risk of sleep apnea in the US population: results from the National Sleep Foundation Sleep in America 2005 poll, Chest. (2006) 130, no. 3, 780–786, 2-s2.0-33748877371, https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.130.3.780.
- 79 Young T., [email protected], Peppard P. E., and Gottlieb D. J., Epidemiology of obstructive sleep apnea: a population health perspective, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. (2002) 165, no. 9, 1217–1239, 2-s2.0-0036569980, https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.2109080.
- 80 Norton P. G. and Dunn E. V., Snoring as a risk factor for disease: an epidemiological survey, British Medical Journal. (1985) 291, no. 6496, 630–632, 2-s2.0-0021934517.
- 81 Jennum P., Schultz-Larsen K., and Christensen N., Snoring, sympathetic activity and cardiovascular risk factors in a 70 year old population, European Journal of Epidemiology. (1993) 9, no. 5, 477–482, 2-s2.0-0027520233.
- 82 Elmasry A., Janson C., Lindberg E., Gislason T., Tageldin M. A., and Boman G., The role of habitual snoring and obesity in the development of diabetes: a 10-year follow-up study in a male population, Journal of Internal Medicine. (2000) 248, no. 1, 13–20, 2-s2.0-0033941213, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2796.2000.00683.x.
- 83 Renko A.-K., Hiltunen L., Laakso M., Rajala U., and Keinänen-Kiukaanniemi S., The relationship of glucose tolerance to sleep disorders and daytime sleepiness, Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice. (2005) 67, no. 1, 84–91, 2-s2.0-11144256460, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2004.06.003.
- 84 Lindberg E., Berne C., Franklin K. A., Svensson M., and Janson C., Snoring and daytime sleepiness as risk factors for hypertension and diabetes in women—a population-based study, Respiratory Medicine. (2007) 101, no. 6, 1283–1290, 2-s2.0-34247625259, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2006.10.015.
- 85 Punjabi N. M., Sorkin J. D., Katzel L. I., Goldberg A. P., Schwartz A. R., and Smith P. L., Sleep-disordered breathing and insulin resistance in middle-aged and overweight men, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. (2002) 165, no. 5, 677–682, 2-s2.0-0036499751.
- 86 Ip M. S. M., Lam B., Ng M. M. T., Lam W. K., Tsang K. W. T., and Lam K. S. L., Obstructive sleep apnea is independently associated with insulin resistance, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. (2002) 165, no. 5, 670–676, 2-s2.0-0036499482.
- 87 Punjabi N. M., Shahar E., Redline S., Gottlieb D. J., Givelber R., and Resnick H. E., Sleep-disordered breathing, glucose intolerance, and insulin resistance: the Sleep Heart Health Study, American Journal of Epidemiology. (2004) 160, no. 6, 521–530, 2-s2.0-4544347749, https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwh261.
- 88 Okada M., Takamizawa A., Tsushima K., Urushihata K., Fujimoto K., and Kubo K., Relationship between sleep-disordered breathing and lifestyle-related illnesses in subjects who have undergone health-screening, Internal Medicine. (2006) 45, no. 15, 891–896, 2-s2.0-33748288190, https://doi.org/10.2169/internalmedicine.45.1592.
- 89 Reichmuth K. J., Austin D., Skatrud J. B., and Young T., Association of sleep apnea and type II diabetes: a population-based study, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. (2005) 172, no. 12, 1590–1595, 2-s2.0-30444459975, https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200504-637OC.
- 90
Vgontzas A. N., Papanicolaou D. A., Bixler E. O., Hopper K., Lotsikas A., Lin H.-M., Kales A., and Chrousos G. P., Sleep apnea and daytime sleepiness and fatigue: relation to visceral obesity, insulin resistance, and hypercytokinemia, Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. (2000) 85, no. 3, 1151–1158, 2-s2.0-0034455007, https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.85.3.1151.
10.1210/jcem.85.3.6484 Google Scholar
- 91 Meslier N., Gagnadoux F., Giraud P., Person C., Ouksel H., Urban T., and Racineux J.-L., Impaired glucose-insulin metabolism in males with obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome, European Respiratory Journal. (2003) 22, no. 1, 156–160, 2-s2.0-0041309843, https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.03.00089902.
- 92 Makino S., Handa H., Suzukawa K., Fujiwara M., Nakamura M., Muraoka S., Takasago I., Tanaka Y., Hashimoto K., and Sugimoto T., Obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome, plasma adiponectin levels, and insulin resistance, Clinical Endocrinology. (2006) 64, no. 1, 12–19, 2-s2.0-33644963542, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2265.2005.02407.x.
- 93 Kono M., Tatsumi K., Saibara T., Nakamura A., Tanabe N., Takiguchi Y., and Kuriyama T., Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome is associated with some components of metabolic syndrome, Chest. (2007) 131, no. 5, 1387–1392, 2-s2.0-34248569432, https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.06-1807.
- 94 Gruber A., Horwood F., Sithole J., Ali N. J., and Idris I., Obstructive sleep apnoea is independently associated with the metabolic syndrome but not insulin resistance state, Cardiovascular Diabetology. (2006) 5, article 22, 2-s2.0-33751253095, https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2840-5-22.
- 95 Sharma S. K., Kumpawat S., Goel A., Banga A., Ramakrishnan L., and Chaturvedi P., Obesity, and not obstructive sleep apnea, is responsible for metabolic abnormalities in a cohort with sleep-disordered breathing, Sleep Medicine. (2007) 8, no. 1, 12–17, 2-s2.0-33845989096, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2006.06.014.
- 96 Çuhadaroǧlu Ç., Utkusavaş A., Öztürk L., Salman S., and Ece T., Effects of nasal CPAP treatment on insulin resistance, lipid profile, and plasma leptin in sleep apnea, Lung. (2009) 187, no. 2, 75–81, 2-s2.0-67649101346, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00408-008-9131-5.
- 97 Dorkova Z., Petrasova D., Molcanyiova A., Popovnakova M., and Tkacova R., Effects of continuous positive airway pressure on cardiovascular risk profile in patients with severe obstructive sleep apnea and metabolic syndrome, Chest. (2008) 134, no. 4, 686–692, 2-s2.0-54249085473, https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.08-0556.
- 98 Brooks B., Cistulli P. A., Borkman M., Ross G., McGhee S., Grunstein R. R., Sullivan C. E., and Yue D. K., Obstructive sleep apnea in obese noninsulin-dependent diabetic patients: effect of continuous positive airway pressure treatment on insulin responsiveness, Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. (1994) 79, no. 6, 1681–1685, 2-s2.0-0028580628.
- 99 Babu A. R., Herdegen J., Fogelfeld L., Shott S., and Mazzone T., Type 2 diabetes, glycemic control, and continuous positive airway pressure in obstructive sleep apnea, Archives of Internal Medicine. (2005) 165, no. 4, 447–452, 2-s2.0-14044268148, https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.165.4.447.
- 100 Harsch I. A., Schahin S. P., Radespiel-Tröger M., Weintz O., Jahreiß H., Fuchs F. S., Wiest G. H., Hahn E. C., Lohmann T., Konturek P. C., and Ficker J. H., Continuous positive airway pressure treatment rapidly improves insulin sensitivity in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. (2004) 169, no. 2, 156–162, 2-s2.0-9144250180, https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200302-206OC.
- 101 Cooper B. G., White J. E. S., Ashworth L. A., Alberti K. G. M. M., and Gibson G. J., Hormonal and metabolic profiles in subjects with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome and the acute effects of nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) treatment, Sleep. (1995) 18, no. 3, 172–179, 2-s2.0-0028918458.
- 102 Czupryniak L., Loba J., Pawlowski M., Nowak D., and Bialasiewicz P., Treatment with continuous positive airway pressure may affect blood glucose levels in nondiabetic patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, Sleep. (2005) 28, no. 5, 601–603, 2-s2.0-18744382143.
- 103 Ip M. S. M., Lam K. S. L., Ho C.-M., Tsang K. W. T., and Lam W., Serum leptin and vascular risk factors in obstructive sleep apnea, Chest. (2000) 118, no. 3, 580–586, 2-s2.0-0033801432.
- 104 Saini J., Krieger J., Brandenberger G., Wittersheim G., Simon C., and Follenius M., Continuous positive airway pressure treatment. Effects on growth hormone, insulin and glucose profiles in obstructive sleep apnea patients, Hormone and Metabolic Research. (1993) 25, no. 7, 375–381, 2-s2.0-0027267659.
- 105 Coughlin S. R., Mawdsley L., Mugarza J. A., Wilding J. P. H., and Calverley P. M. A., Cardiovascular and metabolic effects of CPAP in obese males with OSA, European Respiratory Journal. (2007) 29, no. 4, 720–727, 2-s2.0-34147099100, https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00043306.
- 106 West S. D., Nicoll D. J., Wallace T. M., Matthews D. R., and Stradling J. R., Effect of CPAP on insulin resistance and HbA1c in men with obstructive sleep apnoea and type 2 diabetes, Thorax. (2007) 62, no. 11, 969–974, 2-s2.0-34548150368, https://doi.org/10.1136/thx.2006.074351.
- 107 Harsch I. A., Schahin S. P., Brückner K., Radespiel-Tröger M., Fuchs F. S., Hahn E. G., Konturek P. C., Lohmann T., and Ficker J. H., The effect of continuous positive airway pressure treatment on insulin sensitivity in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome and type 2 diabetes, Respiration. (2004) 71, no. 3, 252–259, 2-s2.0-2342566926, https://doi.org/10.1159/000077423.
- 108 Vgontzas A. N., Tsigos C., Bixler E. O., Stratakis C. A., Zachman K., Kales A., Vela-Bueno A., and Chrousos G. P., Chronic insomnia and activity of the stress system: a preliminary study, Journal of Psychosomatic Research. (1998) 45, no. 1, 21–31, 2-s2.0-0032126072, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3999(97)00302-4.
- 109 Daan S., Beersma D. G., and Borbély A. A., Timing of human sleep: recovery process gated by a circadian pacemaker, American Journal of Physiology. (1984) 246, no. 2, part 2, R161–R183, 2-s2.0-0001859405.
- 110 Buysse D. J., Diagnosis and assessment of sleep and circadian rhythm disorders, Journal of Psychiatric Practice. (2005) 11, no. 2, 102–115, 2-s2.0-16344386245, https://doi.org/10.1097/00131746-200503000-00005.
- 111 Barion A. and Zee P. C., A clinical approach to circadian rhythm sleep disorders, Sleep Medicine. (2007) 8, no. 6, 566–577, 2-s2.0-34547502731, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2006.11.017.
- 112 U.S. Department of Labor, Workers on Flexible and Shift Schedules in 2004 Summary, 2005, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC, USA.
- 113 Knutsson A., Åkerstedt T., Jonsson B. G., and Orth-Gomer K., Increased risk of ischaemic heart disease in shift workers, The Lancet. (1986) 2, no. 8498, 89–92, 2-s2.0-0022655459.
- 114 Nurminen M. and Karjalainen A., Epidemiologic estimate of the proportion of fatalities related to occupational factors in Finland, Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health. (2001) 27, no. 3, 161–213, 2-s2.0-0034957759.
- 115 Tüchsen F., Hannerz H., and Burr H., A 12 year prospective study of circulatory disease among Danish shift workers, Occupational and Environmental Medicine. (2006) 63, no. 7, 451–455, 2-s2.0-33745644012, https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.2006.026716.
- 116 Kroenke C. H., Spiegelman D., Manson J., Schernhammer E. S., Colditz G. A., and Kawachi I., Work characteristics and incidence of type 2 diabetes in women, American Journal of Epidemiology. (2007) 165, no. 2, 175–183, 2-s2.0-33846256311, https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwj355.
- 117 Morikawa Y., Nakagawa H., Miura K., Soyama Y., Ishizaki M., Kido T., Naruse Y., Suwazono Y., and Nogawa K., Effect of shift work on body mass index and metabolic parameters, Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health. (2007) 33, no. 1, 45–50, 2-s2.0-33847738186.
- 118 Karlsson B., Knutsson A., and Lindahl B., Is there an association between shift work and having a metabolic syndrome? Results from a population based study of 27 485 people, Occupational and Environmental Medicine. (2001) 58, no. 11, 747–752, 2-s2.0-0031702638, https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.58.11.747.
- 119 Scheer F. A. J. L., Hilton M. F., Mantzoros C. S., and Shea S. A., Adverse metabolic and cardiovascular consequences of circadian misalignment, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. (2009) 106, no. 11, 4453–4458, 2-s2.0-63149163425, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0808180106.
- 120 Lyssenko V., Nagorny C. L. F., Erdos M. R., Wierup N., Jonsson A., Spégel P., Bugliani M., Saxena R., Fex M., Pulizzi N., Isomaa B., Tuomi T., Nilsson P., Kuusisto J., Tuomilehto J., Boehnke M., Altshuler D., Sundler F., Eriksson J. G., Jackson A. U., Laakso M., Marchetti P., Watanabe R. M., Mulder H., and Groop L., Common variant in MTNR1B associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes and impaired early insulin secretion, Nature Genetics. (2009) 41, no. 1, 82–88, 2-s2.0-58149175669, https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.288.
- 121 Penev P. D., Kolker D. E., Zee P. C., and Turek F. W., Chronic circadian desynchronization decreases the survival of animals with cardiomyopathic heart disease, American Journal of Physiology. (1998) 275, no. 6, H2334–H2337, 2-s2.0-0032416122.
- 122 Fraser G., Trinder J., Colrain I. M., and Montgomery I., Effect of sleep and circadian cycle on sleep period energy expenditure, Journal of Applied Physiology. (1989) 66, no. 2, 830–836, 2-s2.0-0024516958.
- 123 Ravussin E., Burnand B., Schutz Y., and Jequier E., Twenty-four-hour energy expenditure and resting metabolic rate in obese, moderately obese, and control subjects, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. (1982) 35, no. 3, 566–573, 2-s2.0-0020054166.
- 124 Garby L., Kurzer M. S., Lammert O., and Nielsen E., Energy expenditure during sleep in men and women: evaporative and sensible heat losses, Human Nutrition: Clinical Nutrition. (1987) 41, no. 3, 225–233, 2-s2.0-0023190413.
- 125 Fredrix E. W. H. M., Soeters P. B., Deerenberg I. M., Kester A. D. M., Von Meyenfeldt M. F., and Saris W. H. M., Resting and sleeping energy expenditure in the elderly, European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. (1990) 44, no. 10, 741–747, 2-s2.0-0025077830.
- 126 Aschoff J. and Pohl H., Rhythmic variations in energy metabolism, Federation Proceedings. (1970) 29, no. 4, 1541–1552, 2-s2.0-0014824684.
- 127 Milan F. A. and Evonuk E., Oxygen consumption and body temperatures of Eskimos during sleep, Journal of Applied Physiology. (1967) 22, no. 3, 565–567, 2-s2.0-0014067687.
- 128 Kreider M. B., Buskirk E. R., and Bass D. E., Oxygen consumption and body temperatures during the night, Journal of Applied Physiology. (1958) 12, no. 3, 361–366.
- 129 Shapiro C. M., Goll C. C., Cohen G. R., and Oswald I., Heat production during sleep, Journal of Applied Physiology Respiratory Environmental and Exercise Physiology. (1984) 56, no. 3, 671–677, 2-s2.0-0021337809.
- 130 White D. P., Weil J. V., and Zwillich C. W., Metabolic rate and breathing during sleep, Journal of Applied Physiology. (1985) 59, no. 2, 384–391, 2-s2.0-0022253295.
- 131 Montgomery I., Trinder J., and Paxton S. J., Energy expenditure and total sleep time: effect of physical exercise, Sleep. (1982) 5, no. 2, 159–168, 2-s2.0-0020075858.
- 132 Westerterp K. R., Meijer G. A. L., Saris W. H. M., Soeters P. B., Winants Y., and Hoor F. T., Physical activity and sleeping metabolic rate, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. (1991) 23, no. 2, 166–170, 2-s2.0-0026030693.
- 133 Fontvieille A. M., Rising R., Spraul M., Larson D. E., and Ravussin E., Relationship between sleep stages and metabolic rate in humans, American Journal of Physiology. (1994) 267, no. 5, E732–E737.
- 134 Zhang K., Sun M., Werner P., Kovera A. J., Albu J., Pi-Sunyer F. X., and Boozer C. N., Sleeping metabolic rate in relation to body mass index and body composition, International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders. (2002) 26, no. 3, 376–383, 2-s2.0-0036130065, https://doi.org/10.1038/sj/ijo/0801922.
- 135 Penev P., Nedeltcheva A., Imperial J. et al., Impact of an obesigenic environmenton body weight homeostasis in the presence or absence of sleep loss, Sleep. (2006) 28.
- 136 Bland R. M., Bulgarelli S., Ventham J. C., Jackson D., Reilly J. J., and Paton J. Y., Total energy expenditure in children with obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome, European Respiratory Journal. (2001) 18, no. 1, 164–169, 2-s2.0-0034901322, https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.01.99104401.
- 137 Marcus C. L., Carroll J. L., Koerner C. B., Hamer A., Lutz J., and Loughlin G. M., Determinants of growth in children with the obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, Journal of Pediatrics. (1994) 125, no. 4, 556–562, 2-s2.0-0027946416, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(94)70007-9.
- 138 Li A. M., Yin J., Chan D., Hui S., and Fok T. F., Sleeping energy expenditure in paediatric patients with obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome, Hong Kong Medical Journal. (2003) 9, no. 5, 353–356, 2-s2.0-0141927880.
- 139 Kripke D. F., Garfinkel L., Wingard D. L., Klauber M. R., and Marler M. R., Mortality associated with sleep duration and insomnia, Archives of General Psychiatry. (2002) 59, no. 2, 131–136, 2-s2.0-0036171059.
