Impact of behavioral inhibitory control and startle reactivity to uncertain threat on youth suicide risk
Sophia A. Bibb
Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Contribution: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing - original draft
Search for more papers by this authorAlexa House
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Contribution: Data curation, Project administration, Writing - review & editing
Search for more papers by this authorKathryn Jenkins
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Contribution: Data curation, Project administration, Writing - review & editing
Search for more papers by this authorKayla A. Kreutzer
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Contribution: Data curation, Project administration, Writing - review & editing
Search for more papers by this authorCraig J. Bryan
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Contribution: Conceptualization, Writing - review & editing
Search for more papers by this authorJessica J. Weafer
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Contribution: Conceptualization, Writing - review & editing
Search for more papers by this authorK. Luan Phan
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Contribution: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing - review & editing
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Stephanie M. Gorka
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Correspondence
Stephanie M. Gorka, Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, 460 Medical Center Drive, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Contribution: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Supervision, Writing - review & editing
Search for more papers by this authorSophia A. Bibb
Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Contribution: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing - original draft
Search for more papers by this authorAlexa House
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Contribution: Data curation, Project administration, Writing - review & editing
Search for more papers by this authorKathryn Jenkins
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Contribution: Data curation, Project administration, Writing - review & editing
Search for more papers by this authorKayla A. Kreutzer
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Contribution: Data curation, Project administration, Writing - review & editing
Search for more papers by this authorCraig J. Bryan
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Contribution: Conceptualization, Writing - review & editing
Search for more papers by this authorJessica J. Weafer
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Contribution: Conceptualization, Writing - review & editing
Search for more papers by this authorK. Luan Phan
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Contribution: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing - review & editing
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Stephanie M. Gorka
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Correspondence
Stephanie M. Gorka, Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, 460 Medical Center Drive, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Contribution: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Supervision, Writing - review & editing
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
Poor inhibitory control and exaggerated threat reactivity are two well-established risk factors for suicide. Theory suggests that these two factors may interact to influence suicide risk, although few studies have directly tested these relationships. In the present study, we examined the unique and interactive effects of inhibitory control (IC) and threat reactivity on self-reported suicide risk in a sample of 132 youth, ages 16–19. The stop signal task was used as a behavioral index of IC. Threat reactivity was captured using a modified version of the No-Predictable–Unpredictable threat paradigm that includes threat of predictable (P-) and unpredictable (U-) mild electrical shock. Startle eyeblink potentiation was measured throughout the task as an index of aversive responding. All participants completed a battery of well-validated self-report measures including current suicide risk. Hierarchical linear regression analyses controlling for age and sex revealed no main effects of IC or threat reactivity. However, there was a significant IC by reactivity to uncertain threat (U-threat) interaction. At lower levels of IC, greater startle reactivity to U-threat was associated with greater suicide risk. At higher levels of IC, there was no association between reactivity to U-threat and suicide risk. These results suggest that individual differences in IC and reactivity to U-threat interact to influence suicide cognitions, shedding light on potential subgroups of individuals who might be at elevated risk.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Open Research
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
REFERENCES
- Aiken, L. S., West, S. G., & Reno, R. R. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. SAGE.
- Allan, N. P., Gorka, S. M., Saulnier, K. G., & Bryan, C. J. (2023). Anxiety sensitivity and intolerance of uncertainty: Transdiagnostic risk factors for anxiety as targets to reduce risk of suicide. Current Psychiatry Reports, 25(4), 139–147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-023-01413-z
- Alvarez, R. P., Chen, G., Bodurka, J., Kaplan, R., & Grillon, C. (2011). Phasic and sustained fear in humans elicits distinct patterns of brain activity. NeuroImage, 55(1), 389–400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.11.057
- Arain, M., Haque, M., Johal, L., Mathur, P., Nel, W., Rais, A., Sandhu, R., & Sharma, S. (2013). Maturation of the adolescent brain. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 9, 449–461. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S39776
- Ásgeirsdóttir, H. G., Valdimarsdóttir, U. A., Þorsteinsdóttir, Þ. K., Lund, S. H., Tomasson, G., Nyberg, U., Ásgeirsdóttir, T. L., & Hauksdóttir, A. (2018). The association between different traumatic life events and suicidality. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9(1), 1510279. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2018.1510279
- Ballard, E. D., Ionescu, D. F., Vande Voort, J. L., Slonena, E. E., Franco-Chaves, J. A., Zarate, C. A., & Grillon, C. (2014). Increased fear-potentiated startle in major depressive disorder patients with lifetime history of suicide attempt. Journal of Affective Disorders, 162, 34–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.03.027
- Barlow, D. H. (2000). Unraveling the mysteries of anxiety and its disorders from the perspective of emotion theory. American Psychologist, 55(11), 1247–1263.
- Baumeister, R. F. (1990). Suicide as escape from self. Psychological Review, 97(1), 90–113. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.97.1.90
- Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. (2011). Beck depression inventory–II [dataset]. https://doi.org/10.1037/t00742-000
10.1037/t00742?000 Google Scholar
- Berkman, E. T., Kahn, L. E., & Merchant, J. S. (2014). Training-induced changes in inhibitory control network activity. The Journal of Neuroscience, 34(1), 149–157. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3564-13.2014
- Blumenthal, T. D., Cuthbert, B. N., Filion, D. L., Hackley, S., Lipp, O. V., & Van Boxtel, A. (2005). Committee report: Guidelines for human startle eyeblink electromyographic studies. Psychophysiology, 42(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2005.00271.x
- Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (2017). International affective picture system. In V. Zeigler-Hill & T. K. Shackelford (Eds.), Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences (pp. 1–4). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_42-1
10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_42-1 Google Scholar
- Bryan, C. J., David Rudd, M., Wertenberger, E., Etienne, N., Ray-Sannerud, B. N., Morrow, C. E., Peterson, A. L., & Young-McCaughon, S. (2014). Improving the detection and prediction of suicidal behavior among military personnel by measuring suicidal beliefs: An evaluation of the suicide cognitions scale. Journal of Affective Disorders, 159, 15–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.02.021
- Bryan, C. J., May, A. M., Thomsen, C. J., Allen, M. H., Cunningham, C. A., Wine, M. D., Taylor, K. B., Baker, J. C., Bryan, A. O., Harris, J. A., & Russell, W. A. (2022). Psychometric evaluation of the suicide cognitions scale-revised (SCS-R). Military Psychology, 34(3), 269–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2021.1897498
- Bryan, C. J., Rozek, D. C., & Khazem, L. R. (2020). Prospective validity of the suicide cognitions scale among acutely suicidal military personnel seeking unscheduled psychiatric intervention. Crisis, 41(5), 407–411. https://doi.org/10.1027/0227-5910/a000639
- Bryan, C. J., Rudd, M. D., & Wertenberger, E. (2013). Reasons for suicide attempts in a clinical sample of active duty soldiers. Journal of Affective Disorders, 144(1), 148–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.06.030
- Bryan, C. J., Thomsen, C. J., Bryan, A. O., Baker, J. C., May, A. M., & Allen, M. H. (2022). Scores on the suicide cognitions scale-revised (SCS-R) predict future suicide attempts among primary care patients denying suicide ideation and prior attempts. Journal of Affective Disorders, 313, 21–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.06.070
- Casey, B. J., Casey, B. J., Caudle, K., & Caudle, K. (2013). The teenage brain: Self control. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(2), 82–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413480170
- Connell, A. M., Shaw, D., Wilson, M., Danzo, S., Weaver-Krug, C., Lemery-Chalfant, K., & Dishion, T. J. (2019). Indirect effects of the early childhood family check-up on adolescent suicide risk: The mediating role of inhibitory control. Development and Psychopathology, 31(5), 1901–1910. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419000877
- Curtin, S., & Garnett, M. (2023). Suicide and homicide death rates among youth and young adults aged 10–24: United States, 2001–2021. National Center for Health Statistics (U.S.). https://doi.org/10.15620/cdc:128423
- Davis, M. (1998). Are different parts of the extended amygdala involved in fear versus anxiety? Biological Psychiatry, 44(12), 1239–1247. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(98)00288-1
- Davis, M. (2006). Neural systems involved in fear and anxiety measured with fear-potentiated startle. American Psychologist, 61(8), 741–756. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.8.741
- Davis, M., Walker, D. L., Miles, L., & Grillon, C. (2010). Phasic vs sustained fear in rats and humans: Role of the extended amygdala in fear vs anxiety. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 105–135. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2009.109
- Denefrio, S., & Dennis-Tiwary, T. A. (2018). Threat sensitivity. In V. Zeigler-Hill & T. K. Shackelford (Eds.), Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences (pp. 1–3). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_869-1
10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_869-1 Google Scholar
- Devos, G., Clark, L., Maurage, P., Kazimierczuk, M., & Billieux, J. (2015). Reduced inhibitory control predicts persistence in laboratory slot machine gambling. International Gambling Studies, 15(3), 408–421. https://doi.org/10.1080/14459795.2015.1068351
- Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
- Garnett, M. F., Curtin, S. C., & Stone, D. M. (2022). Suicide mortality in the United States, 2000–2020 (pp. 1–8). NCHS Data Brief.
10.15620/cdc:114217 Google Scholar
- Gorka, S. M. (2020). Interpersonal trauma exposure and startle reactivity to uncertain threat in individuals with alcohol use disorder. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 206, 107727. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.107727
- Gorka, S. M., Hee, D., Lieberman, L., Mittal, V. A., Phan, K. L., & Shankman, S. A. (2016). Reactivity to uncertain threat as a familial vulnerability factor for alcohol use disorder. Psychological Medicine, 46(16), 3349–3358. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291716002415
- Gorka, S. M., Lieberman, L., Shankman, S. A., & Phan, K. L. (2017). Startle potentiation to uncertain threat as a psychophysiological indicator of fear-based psychopathology: An examination across multiple internalizing disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126(1), 8–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000233
- Gorka, S. M., Nelson, B. D., & Shankman, S. A. (2013). Startle response to unpredictable threat in comorbid panic disorder and alcohol dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 132(1), 216–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.02.003
- Grillon, C., Baas, J. M. P., Pine, D. S., Lissek, S., Lawley, M., Ellis, V., & Levine, J. (2006). The benzodiazepine alprazolam dissociates contextual fear from cued fear in humans as assessed by fear-potentiated startle. Biological Psychiatry, 60(7), 760–766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.11.027
- Grillon, C., Heller, R., Hirschhorn, E., Kling, M. A., Pine, D. S., Schulkin, J., & Vythilingam, M. (2011). Acute hydrocortisone treatment increases anxiety but not fear in healthy volunteers: A fear-potentiated startle study. Biological Psychiatry, 69(6), 549–555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.12.013
- Grupe, D. W., & Nitschke, J. B. (2013). Uncertainty and anticipation in anxiety: An integrated neurobiological and psychological perspective. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14, 488–501. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3524
- Harfmann, E. J., Rhyner, K. T., & Ingram, R. E. (2019). Cognitive inhibition and attentional biases in the affective go/no-go performance of depressed, suicidal populations. Journal of Affective Disorders, 256, 228–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.05.022
- Hazlett, E. A., Blair, N. J., Fernandez, N., Mascitelli, K., Perez-Rodriguez, M. M., New, A. S., Goetz, R. R., & Goodman, M. (2016). Startle amplitude during unpleasant pictures is greater in veterans with a history of multiple-suicide attempts and predicts a future suicide attempt. Psychophysiology, 53(10), 1524–1534. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12698
- Hedegaard, H., Curtin, S. C., & Warner, M. (2020). Increase in suicide mortality in the United States, 1999–2018 (pp. 1–8). NCHS Data Brief.
- Keilp, J. G., Gorlyn, M., Russell, M., Oquendo, M. A., Burke, A. K., Harkavy-Friedman, J., & Mann, J. J. (2013). Neuropsychological function and suicidal behavior: Attention control, memory and executive dysfunction in suicide attempt. Psychological Medicine, 43(3), 539–551. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291712001419
- Kreutzer, K. A., & Gorka, S. M. (2021). Impact of trauma type on startle reactivity to predictable and unpredictable threats. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 209(12), 899–904. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000001394
- Lang, P. J. (1995). The emotion probe: Studies of motivation and attention. American Psychologist, 50(5), 372–385. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.50.5.372
- Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1990). Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex. Psychological Review, 97(3), 377–395. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.97.3.377
- Lavagnino, L., Arnone, D., Cao, B., Soares, J. C., & Selvaraj, S. (2016). Inhibitory control in obesity and binge eating disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis of neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 68, 714–726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.06.041
- Lieberman, L., Petrey, K., Shankman, S. A., Phan, K. L., & Gorka, S. M. (2020). Heightened reactivity to uncertain threat as a neurobehavioral marker of suicidal ideation in individuals with depression and anxiety. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 155, 99–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.06.003
- Logan, G. D., & Cowan, W. B. (1984). On the ability to inhibit thought and action: A theory of an act of control. Psychological Review, 91(3), 295–327. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.91.3.295
- Löw, A., Lang, P. J., Smith, J. C., & Bradley, M. M. (2008). Both predator and prey: Emotional arousal in threat and reward. Psychological Science, 19(9), 865–873. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02170.x
- MacKillop, J., Weafer, J., C Gray, J., Oshri, A., Palmer, A., & de Wit, H. (2016). The latent structure of impulsivity: Impulsive choice, impulsive action, and impulsive personality traits. Psychopharmacology, 233(18), 3361–3370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-016-4372-0
- Manzler, C. A., Radoman, M., Khorrami, K. J., & Gorka, S. M. (2022). Association between startle reactivity to uncertain threats and structural brain volume. Psychophysiology, 59(10), e14074. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.14074
- Marzuk, P. M., Hartwell, N., Leon, A. C., & Portera, L. (2005). Executive functioning in depressed patients with suicidal ideation. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 112(4), 294–301. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00585.x
- May, A. M., Pachkowski, M. C., & Klonsky, E. D. (2020). Motivations for suicide: Converging evidence from clinical and community samples. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 123, 171–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.02.010
- Melzig, C. A., Weike, A. I., Hamm, A. O., & Thayer, J. F. (2009). Individual differences in fear-potentiated startle as a function of resting heart rate variability: Implications for panic disorder. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 71(2), 109–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.07.013
- Meyer, A., Lerner, M. D., De Los Reyes, A., Laird, R. D., & Hajcak, G. (2017). Considering ERP difference scores as individual difference measures: Issues with subtraction and alternative approaches. Psychophysiology, 54(1), 114–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12664
- Millner, A. J., den Ouden, H. E. M., Gershman, S. J., Glenn, C. R., Kearns, J. C., Bornstein, A. M., Marx, B. P., Keane, T. M., & Nock, M. K. (2019). Suicidal thoughts and behaviors are associated with an increased decision-making bias for active responses to escape aversive states. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 128(2), 106–118. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000395
- Naghavi, M. (2019). Global, regional, and national burden of suicide mortality 1990 to 2016: Systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2016. BMJ, 364, 194. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l94
10.1136/bmj.l94 Google Scholar
- Osman, A., Barrios, F. X., Gutierrez, P. M., Williams, J. E., & Bailey, J. (2008). Psychometric properties of the Beck depression inventory-II in nonclinical adolescent samples. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 64(1), 83–102. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20433
- Osman, A., Kopper, B. A., Barrios, F., Gutierrez, P. M., & Bagge, C. L. (2004). Reliability and validity of the Beck depression inventory—II with adolescent psychiatric inpatients. Psychological Assessment, 16(2), 120–132. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.16.2.120
- Park, C. H. K., Lee, J. W., Lee, S. Y., Moon, J., Jeon, D.-W., Shim, S.-H., Cho, S.-J., Kim, S. G., Lee, J., Paik, J.-W., Kim, M.-H., You, S., Jeon, H. J., Rhee, S. J., Kim, M. J., Kim, J., & Ahn, Y. M. (2020). Suicide risk factors across suicidal ideators, single suicide attempters, and multiple suicide attempters. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 131, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.08.018
- Pozuelos, J. P., Mead, B. R., Rueda, M. R., & Malinowski, P. (2019). Chapter 6—Short-term mindful breath awareness training improves inhibitory control and response monitoring. In N. Srinivasan (Ed.), Progress in brain research (Vol. 244, pp. 137–163). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pbr.2018.10.019
- Pynoos, R. S., & Steinberg, A. M. (2015). The University of California, Los Angeles, post-traumatic stress disorder reaction index (UCLA PTSD index) for the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders ( 5th ed.). University of California.
- Quach, A., Tervo-Clemmens, B., Foran, W., Calabro, F. J., Chung, T., Clark, D. B., & Luna, B. (2020). Adolescent development of inhibitory control and substance use vulnerability: A longitudinal neuroimaging study. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 42, 100771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100771
- Radoman, M., Phan, K. L., & Gorka, S. M. (2019). Neural correlates of predictable and unpredictable threat in internalizing psychopathology. Neuroscience Letters, 701, 193–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2019.02.031
- R. W. Robins (Ed.). (2007). Handbook of research methods in personality psychology. Guilford Press.
- Ron-Grajales, A., Sanz-Martin, A., Castañeda-Torres, R. D., Esparza-López, M., Ramos-Loyo, J., & Inozemtseva, O. (2021). Effect of mindfulness training on inhibitory control in Young offenders. Mindfulness, 12(7), 1822–1838. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-021-01643-3
- Rudd, M. D., & Bryan, C. J. (2021). The brief suicide cognitions scale: Development and clinical application. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 737393. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.737393
- Sandoval, J., Becerra, N., Buholzer, Y., Morales, S., & Figueroa, C. (2021). Working memory, attention, and inhibitory control in adolescents with suicidal behavior: A pilot study. Psicología Educativa, 28(1), 47–52. https://doi.org/10.5093/psed2021a28
- Schmitz, A., & Grillon, C. (2012). Assessing fear and anxiety in humans using the threat of predictable and unpredictable aversive events (the NPU-threat test). Nature Protocols, 7(3), 527–532. https://doi.org/10.1038/nprot.2012.001
- Schmitz, A., Merikangas, K., Swendsen, H., Cui, L., Heaton, L., & Grillon, C. (2011). Measuring anxious responses to predictable and unpredictable threat in children and adolescents. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 110(2), 159–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2011.02.014
- Simmons, A., Strigo, I., Matthews, S. C., Paulus, M. P., & Stein, M. B. (2006). Anticipation of aversive visual stimuli is associated with increased insula activation in anxiety-prone subjects. Biological Psychiatry, 60(4), 402–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.04.038
- Spierer, L., Chavan, C., & Manuel, A. L. (2013). Training-induced behavioral and brain plasticity in inhibitory control. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 427. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00427
- Squeglia, L. M., Jacobus, J., Nguyen-Louie, T. T., & Tapert, S. F. (2014). Inhibition during early adolescence predicts alcohol and marijuana use by late adolescence. Neuropsychology, 28(5), 782–790. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000083
- Tan, L. L., & Wong, H. B. (2008). Severity of depression and suicidal ideations among elderly people in Singapore. International Psychogeriatrics, 20(2), 338–346. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610207005789
- Tezanos, K. M., Pollak, O. H., & Cha, C. B. (2021). Conceptualizing death: How do suicidal adolescents view the end of their lives? Suicide and Life-threatening Behavior, 51(4), 807–815. https://doi.org/10.1111/sltb.12774
- Trotzke, P., Müller, A., Brand, M., Starcke, K., & Steins-Loeber, S. (2020). Buying despite negative consequences: Interaction of craving, implicit cognitive processes, and inhibitory control in the context of buying-shopping disorder. Addictive Behaviors, 110, 106523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106523
- Tzschoppe, J., Nees, F., Banaschewski, T., Barker, G. J., Büchel, C., Conrod, P. J., Garavan, H., Heinz, A., Loth, E., Mann, K., Martinot, J.-L., Smolka, M. N., Gallinat, J., Ströhle, A., Struve, M., Rietschel, M., Schumann, G., & Flor, H. (2014). Aversive learning in adolescents: Modulation by amygdala-prefrontal and amygdala-hippocampal connectivity and neuroticism. Neuropsychopharmacology, 39(4), 875–884. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2013.287
- Ullman, S. E., & Najdowski, C. J. (2009). Correlates of serious suicidal ideation and attempts in female adult sexual assault survivors. Suicide and Life-threatening Behavior, 39(1), 47–57. https://doi.org/10.1521/suli.2009.39.1.47
- Urien, L., & Bauer, E. P. (2022). Sex differences in BNST and amygdala activation by contextual, cued, and unpredictable threats. eNeuro, 9(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1523/ENEURO.0233-21.2021
- Venables, N. C., Sellbom, M., Sourander, A., Kendler, K. S., Joiner, T. E., Drislane, L. E., Sillanmäki, L., Elonheimo, H., Parkkola, K., Multimaki, P., & Patrick, C. J. (2015). Separate and interactive contributions of weak inhibitory control and threat sensitivity to prediction of suicide risk. Psychiatry Research, 226(2–3), 461–466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2015.01.018
- Verbruggen, F., Logan, G. D., & Stevens, M. A. (2008). STOP-IT: Windows executable software for the stop-signal paradigm. Behavior Research Methods, 40(2), 479–483. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.2.479
- Weafer, J., & Fillmore, M. T. (2008). Individual differences in acute alcohol impairment of inhibitory control predict ad libitum alcohol consumption. Psychopharmacology, 201(3), 315–324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-008-1284-7
- Westheide, J., Quednow, B. B., Kuhn, K.-U., Hoppe, C., Cooper-Mahkorn, D., Hawellek, B., Eichler, P., Maier, W., & Wagner, M. (2008). Executive performance of depressed suicide attempters: The role of suicidal ideation. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 258(7), 414–421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-008-0811-1
- Wu, M., Giel, K. E., Skunde, M., Schag, K., Rudofsky, G., de Zwaan, M., Zipfel, S., Herzog, W., & Friederich, H.-C. (2013). Inhibitory control and decision making under risk in bulimia nervosa and binge-eating disorder. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 46(7), 721–728. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22143
- Yang, Y., Jimmy, J., Jones, E. E., Kreutzer, K. A., Bryan, C. J., & Gorka, S. M. (2023). Neural reactivity to threat impacts the association between bullying victimization and suicide risk in youth. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 163, 288–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.05.064
