Free to Read
Coronary Stents, Hypersensitivity Reactions, and the Kounis Syndrome
NICHOLAS G. KOUNIS M.D., Ph.D., F.E.S.C., F.A.C.C.,
GEORGE HAHALIS M.D., Ph.D.,
THEOHARIS C. THEOHARIDES B.A., M.S., M.Phil., M.D., Ph.D., F.A.A.A.A.I.,
NICHOLAS G. KOUNIS M.D., Ph.D., F.E.S.C., F.A.C.C.
Department of Medical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, Patras Highest Institute of Education and Technology, Queen Olgas Square, Patras, Greece
Search for more papers by this authorGEORGE HAHALIS M.D., Ph.D.
Catheterization Laboratory, Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of Patras Medical School, Rion, Patras, Greece
Search for more papers by this authorTHEOHARIS C. THEOHARIDES B.A., M.S., M.Phil., M.D., Ph.D., F.A.A.A.A.I.
Departments of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Internal Medicine and Biochemistry, Tufts University School of Medicine and Tufts-New England Medical Center, 136 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA
Search for more papers by this authorNICHOLAS G. KOUNIS M.D., Ph.D., F.E.S.C., F.A.C.C.,
GEORGE HAHALIS M.D., Ph.D.,
THEOHARIS C. THEOHARIDES B.A., M.S., M.Phil., M.D., Ph.D., F.A.A.A.A.I.,
NICHOLAS G. KOUNIS M.D., Ph.D., F.E.S.C., F.A.C.C.
Department of Medical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, Patras Highest Institute of Education and Technology, Queen Olgas Square, Patras, Greece
Search for more papers by this authorGEORGE HAHALIS M.D., Ph.D.
Catheterization Laboratory, Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of Patras Medical School, Rion, Patras, Greece
Search for more papers by this authorTHEOHARIS C. THEOHARIDES B.A., M.S., M.Phil., M.D., Ph.D., F.A.A.A.A.I.
Departments of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Internal Medicine and Biochemistry, Tufts University School of Medicine and Tufts-New England Medical Center, 136 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA
Search for more papers by this authorAddress for reprints: Nicholas G. Kounis M.D., Ph.D., F.E.S.C., F.A.C.C., Professor and Director, Department of Medical Sciences, Patras Highest Institute of Education and Technology, Queen Olgas Square, Patras 26221, Greece. Fax: +30-2610-279579; e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The use of drug-eluting stents (DES) for the treatment of coronary stenosis has increased sharply and now accounts for more than 75% of all coronary stents utilized. However, concern has been increasing that DES could be associated with stent thrombosis, paradoxical coronary vasoconstriction, and hypersensitivity reactions. Components of currently used DES have been reported to induce, either separately or synergistically, hypersensitivity reactions and possibly lead to cardiac events. DES-activated intracoronary mast cells could release histamine, arachidonic acid metabolites, proteolytic enzymes, as well as a variety of cytokines, chemokines, and platelet-activating factor (PAF) leading to local inflammation and thrombosis. These events may be more common than suspected because it is hard to document them, unless they become systemic, in which case they manifest themselves as the “Kounis syndrome,” characterized by the concurrence of acute coronary events with hypersensitivity reactions. Recognition of this problem may lead to better vigilance, as well as new DES with mast cell blocking molecules that may also be disease modifying.
References
- 1 Iakovou I, Schmidt T, Bonizzoni E, et al. Incidence, predictors, and outcome of thrombosis after successful implantation of drug-eluting stents. JAMA 2005; 293: 2126–2213.
- 2 Joner M, Finn AV, Farb A, Mont EK, et al. Pathology to drug-eluting stents in humans. Delayed healing and late thrombotic risk. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 48: 193–202.
- 3 Cutlip DE, Baim DS, Ho KK, et al. Stent thrombosis in the modern era: A pooled analysis of multicenter coronary stent trials. Circulation 2001; 103: 1967–1971.
- 4 Nordmann AJ, Briel M, Bucher HC. Mortality in randomized controlled trials comparing drug-eluting vs. metal stents in coronary artery disease: A meta-analysis. Eur Heart J 2006; 27: 2784–2814.
- 5 Pfisterer ME, Brunner-La Rocca HP, Buser PT, et al., for BASKET-LATE Investigators. Late clinical events after clopidogrel discontinuation may limit the benefit of drug-eluting stents. An observational study of drug-eluting versus bare-metal stents. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 48: 2584–2591.
- 6 Camenzind E, Steng PG, Wijns W. A meta-analysis of first generation drug eluting stent programs. Presented at Hotline Session I, World Congress of Cardiology 2006, Barcelona, September 2–5, 2006. (Abstract)
- 7 FDA Statement on Coronary Drug-Eluting Stents. http://www.fda.gov/cdrh/news/010407.html
- 8 Spaulding C, Daemen J, Boersma E, et al. A pooled analysis of data comparing sirolimus-eluting stents with bare-metal stents. N Engl J Med 2007; 356: 989–997.
- 9 Stone GW, Moses JW, Ellis SG, et al. Safety and efficacy of sirolimus- and paclitaxel-eluting stents. N Engl J Med 2007; 356: 998–1008.
- 10 Kastrati A, Mehilli J, Pache J, et al. Analysis of 14 trials comparing sirolimus-eluting stents with bare-metal stents. N Engl J Med 2007; 356: 1030–1039.
- 11 Lagerqvist B, James SK, Stenestrand U, et al. Long-term outcomes with drug-eluting stents versus bare-metal stents. N Engl J Med 2007; 356: 1009–1019.
- 12 Luscher TF, Steffel J, Eberli FR, et al. Drug-eluting stent and coronary thrombosis. Biological mechanisms and clinical implications. Circulation 2007; 115: 1051–1058.
- 13 Farb A, Burke AP, Kolodgie FD, et al. Pathological mechanisms of fatal late coronary stent thrombosis in humans. Circulation 2003; 108: 1701–1706.
- 14 Kounis NG, Zavras GM. Histamine-induced coronary artery spasm: The concept of allergic angina. Br J Clin Pract 1991; 45: 121–128.
- 15 Kounis NG, Kounis GN, Kouni SN. Coronary-artery stents. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 2076–2077.
- 16 Kounis NG, Kounis GN, Kouni SN, et al. Allergic reactions following implantation of drug-eluting stents: A manifestation of Kounis syndrome? J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 48: 592–593.
- 17 Bennett CL, Nebeker JR, Lyons EA, et al. The research on adverse drug events and reports (RADAR) project. JAMA 2005; 293: 2131–2140.
- 18 Nebeker JR, Virmani R, Bennet CL, et al. Hypersensitivity cases associated with drug-eluting stents. A review of available cases from the research on adverse drug events and reports (RADAR) project. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 47: 175–181.
- 19 Azarbal B, Currier JW. Allergic reactions after the implantation of drug-eluting stents. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 47: 182–183.
- 20 Kounis NG. Kounis syndrome (allergic angina and allergic myocardial infarction): A natural paradigm? Int J Cardiol 2006; 110: 7–14.
- 21 Kounis NG, Zavras GM. Allergic angina and allergic myocardial infarction. Circulation 1996; 94: 1789.
- 22 Kounis NG, Grapsas ND, Goudevenos JA. Unstable angina, allergic angina, and allergic myocardial infarction. Circulation 1999; 100: e156.
- 23 Nikolaidis LA, Kounis NG, Grandman AH. Allergic angina and allergic myocardial infarction: A new twist on an old syndrome. Can J Cardiol 2002; 18: 508–511.
- 24 Zavras GM, Papadaki PJ, Kokkinis CE, et al. Kounis syndrome secondary to allergic reaction following shellfish ingestion. Int J Clin Pract 2003; 57: 622–624.
- 25 Wickman M. When allergies complicate allergies. Allergy 2005; 60: 14–18.
- 26 Galli SJ, Nakae S, Tsai M. Mast cells in the development of adaptive immune responses. Nat Immunol 2005; 6: 135–142.
- 27 Theoharides TC, Kalogeromitros D. The critical role of mast cells in allergy and inflammation. Ann NY Acad Sci 2006; 1088: 78–99.
- 28 MacGlashan Jr. DW, Brochner BS, Adelman DC, et al. Down-regulation of FcRI expression in human basophils during in vivo treatment of atopic patients with anti-IgE antibody. J Immunol 1997; 158: 1438–1445.
- 29 Nopp A, Johansson SGO, Lundberg M, et al. Simultaneous exposure of several allergens has an additive effect on multisensitized basophils. Allergy 2006; 61: 1366–1368.
- 30 Laine P, Kaartinen M, Penttila A, et al. Association between myocardial infarction and the mast cells in the adventitia of the infarct-related coronary artery. Circulation 1999; 99: 361–369.
- 31 Kaartinen M, Van Der Wal AC, Van Der Loos CM, et al. Mast cell infiltration in acute coronary syndromes: Implications for plaque rupture. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 32: 606–612.
- 32 Kaartinen M, Penttila A, Kovanen PT. Mast cells in rupture-prone areas of human coronary atheromas produce and store TNF-alpha. Circulation 1996; 94: 2787–2792.
- 33 Kaartinen M, Penttila A, Kovanen PT. Mast cells accompany microvessels in human coronary atheromas: Implications for intimal neovascularization and hemorrhage. Atherosclerosis 1996; 123: 123–131.
- 34 Kovanen PT, Kaartinen M, Paavonen T. Infiltrates of activated mast cells at the site of coronary atheromatous erosion or rupture in myocardial infarction. Circulation 1995; 92: 1084–1088.
- 35 Kaartinen M, Penttila A, Kovanen PT. Accumulation of activated mast cells in the shoulder region of human coronary atheroma, the predilection site of atheromatous rupture. Circulation 1994; 90: 1669–1678.
- 36 Kovanen PT. Chymase-containing mast cells in human arterial intima: Implications for atherosclerotic disease. Heart Vessels 1997; 12(Suppl.): 125–127.
- 37 Kaartinen M, Penttila A, Kovanen PT. Mast cells in rupture-prone areas of human coronary atheromas produce and store TNF-alpha. Circulation 1996; 94: 2787–2792.
- 38 Kovanen PT. Mast cells in human fatty streaks and atheromas: Implications for intimal lipid accumulation. Curr Opin Lipidol 1996; 7: 281–286.
- 39 Sun J, Sukhova GK, Wolters PJ, et al. Mast cells promote atherosclerosis by releasing proinflammatory cytokines. Nat Medicine 2007; 13: 719–724.
- 40 Ma H, Kovanen PT. Inhibition of mast cell-dependent conversion of cultured macrophages into foam cells with antiallergic drugs. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000; 20: E134–E142.
- 41 Bot I, De Jager SCA, Zernecke A, et al. Perivascular mast cells promote atherogenesis and induce plaque destabilization in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Circulation 2007; 115: 2516–2525.
- 42 Mayranpaa MI, Heikkila HM, Lindstedt KA, et al. Desquamation of human coronary artery endothelium by human mast cell proteases: Implications for plaque erosion. Coron Artery Dis 2006; 17: 611–621.
- 43 Lappalainen H, Laine P, Pentikainen MO, et al. Mast cells in neovascularized human coronary plaques store and secrete basic fibroblast growth factor, a potent angiogenic mediator. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004; 24: 1880–1885.
- 44 Theoharides TC, Kempuraj D, Tagen M, et al. Differential release of mast cell mediators and the pathogenesis of inflammation. Immunol Rev 2007; 217: 65–78.
- 45 Sakata Y, Komamura K, Hirayama A, et al. Elevation of the plasma histamine concentration in the coronary circulation in patients with variant angina. Am J Cardiol 1996; 77: 1121–1126.
- 46 Huang M, Pang X, Letourneau R, et al. Acute stress induces cardiac mast cell activation and histamine release, effects that are increased in Apolipoprotein E knockout mice. Cardiovasc Res 2002; 55: 150–160.
- 47 Steffel J, Akhmedov A, Greutert H, et al. Histamine induces tissue factor expression. Implications for acute coronary syndromes. Circulation 2005; 112: 341–349.
- 48 Deliargyris EN, Upadhya B, Sane DC, et al. Mast cell tryptase: A new biomarker in patients with stable coronary artery disease. Atherosclerosis 2005; 178: 381–386.
- 49 Kervinen H, Kaartinen M, Makynen H, et al. Serum tryptase levels in acute coronary syndromes. Int J Cardiol 2005; 104: 138–143.
- 50 Lee M, Sommerhoff CP, Von Eckardstein A, et al. Mast cell tryptase degrades HDL and blocks its function as an acceptor of cellular cholesterol. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22: 2086–2091.
- 51 Reid AC, Silver RB, Levi R. Renin: At the heart of the mast cell. Immunol Rev 2007; 217: 123–140.
- 52 Lee M, Calabresi L, Chiesa G, et al. Mast cell chymase degrades apoE and apoA-II in apoA-I-knockout mouse plasma and reduces its ability to promote cellular cholesterol efflux. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22: 1475–1481.
- 53 Bacani C, Frishman WH. Chymase: A new pharmacologic target in cardiovascular disease. Cardiol Rev 2006; 14: 187–193.
- 54 Lee-Rueckert M, Kovanen PT. Mast cell proteases: Physiological tools to study functional significance of high density lipoproteins in the initiation of reverse cholesterol transport. Atherosclerosis 2006; 189: 8–18.
- 55 Raymond RJ, Dehmer GJ, Theoharides TC, et al. Elevated interleukin-6 levels in patients with asymptomatic left ventricular systolic dysfunction. Am Heart J 2001; 141: 435–438.
- 56 Deliargyris EN, Raymond RJ, Theoharides TC, et al. Sites of interleukin-6 release in patients with acute coronary syndromes and in patients with congestive heart failure. Am J Cardiol 2000; 86: 913–918.
- 57 Huang M, Pang X, Karalis K, Theoharides TC. Stress-induced interleukin-6 release in mice is mast cell-dependent and more pronounced in Apolipoprotein E knockout mice. Cardiovasc Res 2003; 59: 241–249.
- 58 Shu J, Ren N, Du JB, et al. Increased levels of interleukin-6 and matrix metalloproteinase-9 are of cardiac origin in acute coronary syndrome. Scand Cardiovasc J 2007; 41: 149–154.
- 59 Bhattacharya K, Farwell K, Huang M, et al. Mast cell deficient W/Wv mice have lower serum IL-6 and less cardiac tissue necrosis than their normal littermates following myocardial ischemia-reperfusion. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 2007; 20: 69–74.
- 60 Nakae S, Suto H, Likura M, et al. Mast cells enhance T cell activation: Importance of mast cell costimulatory molecules and secreted TNF. J Immunol 2006; 176: 2238–2248.
- 61 Mekori YA, Metcalfe DD. Mast cell-T cell interactions. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999; 104: 517–523
- 62 Miyazaki D, Nakamura T, Toda M, et al. Macrophage inflammatory protein-1α as a costimulatory signal for mast cell-mediated immediate hypersensitivity reactions. J Clin Invest 2005; 115: 434–442.
- 63 Salari H, Chan-Yeung M. Mast cell mediators stimulate synthesis of arachidonic acid metabolites in macrophages. J Immunol 1989; 142: 2821–2827.
- 64 Doherty TM. T cell regulation of macrophage function. Curr Opin Immunol 1995; 7: 400–404.
- 65 Szebeni J. Complement activation-related pseudoallergy: a new class of drug-induced acute immune toxicity. Toxicology 2005; 216: 106–121.
- 66 Blagosklonny MV, Darzyziewicz Z, Halicka HD, et al. Paclitaxel induces primary and postmitotic G1 arrest in human arterial muscle cells. Cell Cycle 2004; 3: 1050–1056.
- 67 Yeh ETH, Tong AT, Lenihan DJ, et al. Cardiovascular complications of cancer therapy. Diagnosis, pathogenesis, and management. Circulation 2004; 109: 3122–3131.
- 68 Finn AV, Kolodgie FD, Hamek J, et al. Differential response of delayed healing and persistent inflammation at sites of overlapping sirolimus- or paclitaxel-eluting stents. Circulation 2005; 112: 270–278.
- 69 Stahli BE, Camici GG, Steffel J, et al. Paclitaxel enhances thrombin-induced endothelial tissue factor expression via c-jun terminal NH2 kinase activation. Circ Res 2006; 99: 149–155
- 70 Zanotti KM, Markman M. Prevention and management of antineoplastic-induced hypersensitivity reactions. Drug Saf 2001; 24: 767–777.
- 71 Weiss RB, Donchover RC, Wiernik PH, et al. Hypersensitivity reactions from taxol. J Clin Oncol 1990; 8: 1263–1268.
- 72 Rowinsky EK, McGuire WP, Guarnieri T, et al. Cardiac disturbances during the administration of taxol. J Clin Oncol 1991; 9: 1704–1712.
- 73 Rowinsky EK, Eisenhauer EA, Chaudhry V, et al. Clinical toxicities encountered with paclitaxel (Taxol). Semin Oncol 1993; 20(Suppl. 3): S1–S15.
- 74 Zanotti KM, Markman M. Prevention and management of antineoplastic-induced hypersensitivity reactions. Drug Saf 2001; 24: 767–777.
- 75 Sevelda P, Mayerhofer K, Obermair A, et al. Thrombosis with paclitaxel. Lancet 1994; 343: 727.
- 76 Hekmat E. Fatal myocardial infarction potentially induced by paclitaxel. Ann Pharmacother 1996; 30: 1110–1112.
- 77 Laher S, Karp SJ. Acute myocardial infarction following paclitaxel administration for ovarian carcinoma. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol) 1997; 9: 124–126.
- 78 Pai VB, Nahata MC. Cardiotoxicity of chemotherapeutic agents: Incidence, treatment and prevention. Drug Saf 2000; 22: 263–302.
- 79 Mersin N, Boulbair F, Davani S, et al. Myocardial infarction after paclitaxel use. Therapie 2003; 58: 467–469.
- 80 Nguyen-Ho P, Keiman NS, Verani MS. Acute myocardial infarction and cardiac arrest in a patient receiving paclitaxel. Can J Cardiol 2003; 19: 300–302.
- 81 Kloover JS, Den Bakker MA, Van Meerbeeck JP, et al. Fatal outcome of a hypersensitivity reaction to paclitaxel: A critical review of premedication regimens. Br J Cancer 2004; 90: 304–305.
- 82 Schrader C, Keussen C, Bewig B, et al. Symptoms and signs of acute myocardial ischemia caused by chemotherapy with paclitaxel (Taxol) in a patient with metastatic ovarian carcinoma. Eur J Med Res 2005; 10: 498–501.
- 83 Ruiz-Casado A, Calzas J, Garcia J, et al. Life-threatening adverse drug reaction to paclitaxel. Postmarketing surveillance. Clin Transl Oncol 2006; 8: 60–62.
- 84 Turkoglu S, Simsek V, Abasi A. Possible anaphylactic reaction to Taxus stent: A case report. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2005; 66: 554–556.
- 85 Kim JW, Park CG, Seo HS, et al. Delayed severe multivessel spasm and aborted sudden death after Taxus stent implantation. Heart 2005; 91: e15.
- 86 Vial T, De Saint Hilaire PJ, Descotes J. Paclitaxel hypersensitivity reactions: Assessment of the utility of a test-dose program. Cancer J 2006; 12: 237–245.
- 87 Henry A, Charpiat B, Perol M, et al. Possible anaphylactic reaction to Taxus stent: A case report. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2005; 66: 554–556.
- 88 Kim JW, Park CG, Seo HS, et al. Delayed severe multivessel spasm and aborted sudden death after Taxus stent implantation. Heart 2005; 91: e15.
- 89 Watanabe Y, Nakai H, Ueda H, et al. Carboplatin hypersensitivity induced by low-dose paclitaxel/carboplatin in multiple platinum-treated patients with recurrent ovarian cancer. Int J Gynecol Cancer 2005; 15: 224–227.
- 90 Soufras GD, Ginopoulos PV, Papadaki PJ, et al. Penicillin allergy in cancer patients manifesting as Kounis syndrome. Heart Vessels 2005; 20: 159–163.
- 91 Vasquez EM. Sirolimus: A new agent for prevention of renal allograft rejection. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2000; 57: 437–448.
- 92 Steffel J, Latini RA, Akhmedov A, et al. Rapamycin, but not FK-506, increases endothelial tissue factor expression: Implications for drug-eluting stent design. Circulation 2005; 112: 2002–2011.
- 93 Tracey C, Hawley C, Griffin AD, et al. Generalized, pruritic, ulcerating maculopapular rash necessitating cessation of sirolimus in a liver transplantation patient. Liver Transpl 2005; 11: 987–989.
- 94 Warino L, Libecco J. Cutaneous effects of sirolimus in renal transplant recipients. J Drugs Dermatol 2006; 5: 273–274.
- 95 Wadei H, Gruber SA, El-Amm JM, et al. Sirolimus-induced angioedema. Am J Transplant 2004; 4: 1002–1005.
- 96 Mingos MA, Kane GC. Sirolimus-induced interstitial pneumonitis in a renal transplant patient. Respir Care 2005; 50: 1659–1661.
- 97 Howard L, Gopalan D, Griffiths M, et al. Sirolimus-induced pulmonary hypersensitivity with a CD4 T-cell infiltrate. Chest 2006; 129: 1718–1721.
- 98 Kunzle N, Venetz JP, Pascual M, et al. Sirolimus-induced acneiform eruption. Dermatology 2005; 211: 305–306.
- 99 Hardinger KL, Cornelius LA, Trulock EP 3rd, et al. Sirolimus-induced leukocytoclastic vasculitis. Transplantation 2002; 74: 739–743.
- 100 Pasqualotto AC, Bianco PD, Sukiennik TC, et al. Sirolimus-induced leukocytoclastic vasculitis: The second case reported. Am J Transplant 2004; 4: 1549–1551.
- 101 Truong U, Moon-Grady AJ, Butani L. Cardiac tamponade in a pediatric renal transplant recipient on sirolimus therapy. Pediatr Transplant 2005; 9: 541–544.
- 102 Walpoth BH, Hess OM. Late coronary thrombosis secondary to a sirolimus-eluting stent. Circulation 2004; 110: e309.
- 103 Walpoth BH, Pavlicek M, Celik B, et al. Prevention of neointimal proliferation by immunosuppression in synthetic vascular grafts. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2001; 19: 487–492.
- 104 Togni M, Winddecker S, Cocchia R, et al. Sirolimus-eluting stents associated with paradoxic coronary vasoconstriction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005; 46: 231–236.
- 105 Wheatcroft SW, Byrne J, Thomas M, et al. Life-threatening coronary artery spasm following sirolimus-eluting stent deployment. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 47: 1911–1912.
- 106 Maekawa K, Kawamoto K, Fuke S, et al. Severe endothelial dysfunction after sirolimus-eluting stent implantation. Circulation 2006; 113: e850–e851.
- 107 Virmani R, Guagliumi G, Farb A, et al. Localized hypersensitivity and late coronary thrombosis secondary to a sirolimus stent. Should we be cautious? Circulation 2004; 109: 701–705.
- 108 Virmani R, Farb A, Kolodgie FD, et al. Late coronary thrombosis secondary to a sirolimus-eluting stent. Circulation 2004; 110: e309.
- 109 McFadden EP, Stabile E, Regar E, et al. Late thrombosis in drug-eluting coronary stents after discontinuation of antiplatelet therapy. Lancet 2004; 364: 1519–1521.
- 110 Leggat PA, Ketjarune U. Toxicity of methyl methacrylate in dentistry. Int Dent J 2003; 53: 126–131.
- 111 Ahmed DD, Sobczak SC, Yunginger JW. Occupational allergies caused by latex. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2003; 23: 205–219.
- 112 Ruiz-Genao DP, Moreno De Vega MJ, Sanchez Perez J, et al. Labial edema due to an acrylic dental prosthesis. Contact Dermatitis 2003; 48: 273–274.
- 113 Giunta J, Zablotsky N. Allergic stomatitis caused by self-polymerizing resin. Oral Surg Med Oral Pathol 1976; 41: 631–637.
- 114 Lunder T, Rogl-Butina M. Chronic urticaria from an acrylic dental prosthesis. Contact Dermatitis 2000; 43: 222–223.
- 115 Nealey ET, Del Rio CE. Stomatitis venenata: Reaction of a patient to acrylic resin. J Prosthet Dent 1969; 21: 480–484.
- 116 Concalves TS, Morganti MA, Campos LC, et al. Allergy to auto-polymerized acrylic resin in an orthodontic patient. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 2006; 129: 431–435.
- 117 Devlin H, Watts DC. Acrylic “allergy”? Br Dent J 1984; 157: 272–275.
- 118 Van Beusekom HM, Schwartz RS, Van Der Giessen WJ. Synthetic polymers. Semin Interv Cardiol 1998; 3: 145–148.
- 119 Van Der Giessen WJ, Lincoff AM, Schwartz RS, et al. Marked inflammatory sequelae to implantation of biodegradable and nonbiodegradable polymers in porcine coronary arteries. Circulation 1996; 94: 1690–1697.
- 120 Van Beusekom HM, Serruys PW, Van Der Giessen WJ. Coronary stent coatings. Coron Artery Dis 1994; 5: 590–596.
- 121 Revell PA, Braden M, Freeman MA. Review of the biological response to a novel bone cement containing poly(ethyl methacrylate) and n-butyl methacrylate. Biomaterials 1998; 19: 1579–1586.
- 122 Niemi SM, Fox JG, Brown LR, et al. Evaluation of ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer as a non-inflammatory alternative to Freund's complete adjuvant in rabbits. Lab Anim Sci 1985; 35: 609–612.
- 123 Moreau L, Alomer G, Dube N, et al. Contact urticaria from carboxymethylcellulose in white chalk. Dermatitis 2006; 17: 29–31.
- 124 Ownby DR. Mechanisms in adverse reactions to food: The whole body. Allergy 1995; 50(20 Suppl.): 26–30.
- 125 Lyell A, Bain WH, Thomson RM. Repeated failure of nickel-containing prosthetic valves in a patient allergic to nickel. Lancet 1978; 2: 657–659.
- 126 Kanerva L, Sipilainen-Malm T, Estlander T, et al. Nickel rease from metals, and a case of allergic contact dermatitis from stainless steel. Contact Dermat 1994; 31: 299–303.
- 127 Hillen U, Haude M, Erbel R, et al. Evaluation of metal allergies in patients with coronary stents. Contact Dermat 2002; 47: 353–356.
- 128 Thomas P, Summer B, Sander CA, et al. Intolerance of osteosynthesis material: Evidence of dichromate contact allergy with concomitant oligoclonal T-cell infiltrate and TH1-type cytokine expression in the peri-inplantar tissue. Allergy 2000; 55: 969–972.
- 129 Oppei T, Schnuch A. The most frequent allergens in allergic contact dermatitis. Dtsch Med Wochennschr 2006; 131: 1584–1589.
- 130 Wertman B, Azarbal B, Riedl M, et al. Adverse events associated with nickel allergy in patients undergoing percutaneous atrial septal defect or patent foramen ovale closure. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 47: 1226–1227.
- 131 Fukahara K, Minami K, Reiss N, et al. Systemic allergic reactions to the percutaneous patent foramen ovale closure. J Thoracic Cardiovasc Surg 2003; 125: 213–214.
- 132 Dasika UK, Kanter KR, Vincent R. Nickel allergy to percutaneous patent foramen ovale occluder and subsequent systemic nickel allergy. J Thoracic Cardiovasc Surg 2003; 125: 2112–2113.
- 133 Sharifi M, Burks J. Efficacy of clopidogrel in the treatment of post-ASD closure migraines. Catheter Cardiovasc Inter 2004; 63: 255.
- 134 Menezes LM, Campos LC, Quintao CC, et al. Hypersensitivity to metals in orthodontics. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 2004; 126: 58–64.
- 135 Koster R, Vieluf D, Kiehn M, et al. Nickel and molybdenum contact allergies in patients with coronary in-stent restenosis. Lancet 2000; 356: 1895–1897.
- 136 Kawano H, Koide Y, Baba T, et al. Granulation tissue with eosinophil infiltration in the restenotic lesion after coronary stent implantation. Circ J 2004; 68: 722–723.
- 137 Iijima R, Ikari Y, Amiya E, et al. The impact of metallic allergy on stent implantation. Metal allergy and recurrence of in-stent thrombosis. Int J Cardiol 2005; 104: 319–325.
- 138 Lhotka CG, Szekeres T, Fritzer-Szekeres M, et al. Are allergic reactions to skin clips associated with delayed wound healing? Am J Surg 1998; 176: 320–323.
- 139 Federmann M, Morell B, Graetz G, et al. Hypersensitivity to molybdenum as a possible trigger of ANA-negative systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 1994; 53: 403–405.
- 140 Svedman C, Tillman C, Gustavsson CG, et al. Contact allergy to gold in patients with gold-plated intracoronary stents. Contact Dermatitis 2005; 52: 192–196.
- 141 Mosseri M, Tamari I, Plich M, et al. Short- and long-term outcomes of the titanium-NO stent registry. Cardiovasc Revasc Med 2005; 6: 2–6.
- 142 Brott BC, Anayiotos A, Chapman G, et al. Severe, diffuse coronary artery spasm after drug-eluting stent placement. J Invasive Cardiol 2006; 18: 584–592.
- 143 Togni M, Eberli FR. Vasoconstriction and coronary artery spasm after drug-eluting stent placement. J Invasive Cardiol 2006; 18: 593.
- 144 Garcia JA, Hansgen A, Casserly IP. Simultaneous multivessel acute drug-eluting stent thrombosis. Int J Cardiol 2006; 113: E11–E15.
- 145 Nemmar A, Hoet PHM, Vermylen J, et al. Pharmacological stabilization of mast cells abrogates late thrombotic events induced by diesel exhaust particles in hamsters. Circulation 2004; 110: 1670–1677.
