Superspecies and species limits in vertebrates
Corresponding Author
J. Haffer
Dr. JürgenHaffer, Tommesweg 60, D-4300 Essen 1Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
J. Haffer
Dr. JürgenHaffer, Tommesweg 60, D-4300 Essen 1Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
Species in competition parapatry exclude one another geographically in fairly uniform habitat zones. Gene flow has ceased or almost ceased but coexistence and geographical overlap of the species ranges is not yet possible. Although parapatric species are commonly found in vertebrates as well as in invertebrates, much more so than previously recognized, their contact zones have rarely been studied in the field. Details of the underlying biological cause of parapatry therefore are largely unknown.
The distribution patterns of parapatric species assemblages resemble large scale mosaics composed of neatly interlocking patches formed by the ranges of the component species. Parapatric and allopatric species are combined in a first order superspecies if they were'once conspecific representatives of a single ancestor species. An assemblage of parapatric and/or allopatric species derived from two or more directly related ancestral species (presumably paraspecies) is here designated a second order superspecies (mega-superspecies). The latter consists of two (ore more) para- or allopatric first order superspecies or of a first order superspecies and one or more separate species. The reasons for the delay in these species attaining ecological compatibility during repeated speciation events remain obscure. A species group consists of two or more closely related species which are extensively sympatric (or potentially sympatric), i. e. have reached not only reproductive isolation but ecological compatibility as well.
Reproductive isolation of populations inhabiting the same or adjoining areas (inferred reproductive isolation in the case of allopatric populations) is the criterion for delimiting biological species. In contrast to this Isolation Concept the Recognition Concept of species emphasizes the possession of a mate-specific recognition system which only incidentally results in “reproductive isolation” between species; these are conceived without reference to other species. During recent years, several other species concepts have been proposed which are appreciably narrower and wider, respectively, than that of the biospecies, e. g. the concepts of the phylogenetic species, evolutionary species and zoogeographical species. Based on these concepts, species limits have been suggested at nearly every conceivable level of microtaxonomic differentiation.
Choice of a species concept and corresponding placement of the species limit remain subjective as long as no quantitative and comparative studies are available analyzing the “importance” of gaps of discontinuity existing between taxa at increasing levels of microtaxonomic differentiation. The results of such studies may eventually permit a distinction to be made between anagenetic (intra-specific) and cladogenetic (speciation) processes. The position of the species limit as proposed under the biospecies concept presently appears to be the most preferable compromise.
Zusammenfassung
Superspezies und Artgrenzen bei Wirbeltieren
Parapatrische Arten schließen einander in relativ einheitlichen Habitaten geographisch aus, weil sie wahrscheinlich ökologisch konkurrieren. Genfluß zwischen ihnen findet nicht oder kaum statt, jedoch sind ihre Koexistenz und die Überlappung ihrer Areale noch nicht möglich. Obwohl parapatrische Arten bei Wirbeltieren und Wirbellosen weltweit häufiger vorkommen als frÜher angenommen wurde, sind Einzelheiten der ökologischen Beziehungen solcher Arten im Gelände bisher kaum untersucht worden.
Das Verbreitungsmuster einer Gruppe parapatrischer Arten gleicht einem Mosaik, das von den komplementären Arealen der einzelnen geographischen Vertreter gebildet wird. Parapatrische und allopatrische Arten werden in einer Superspezies 1. Ordnung vereinigt, wenn angenominen werden kann, daß sie einst konspezifische Vertreter einer Vorfahren-Art waren. Eine Gruppe von allo- und/ oder parapatrischen Arten, die von zwei (oder mehr) direkt miteinander verwandten Vorfahren-Arten abstammen, die vermutlich ebenfalls Paraspezies waren, wird hier als Superspezies 2. Ordnung [Mega-Superspezies] bezeichnet. Es bleibt unbekannt, warum die Vertreter dieser Gruppen trotz fortschreitender taxonomischer Differenzierung im Gefolge wiederholter Speziationen noch immer keine ökologische Sonderung entwickeln konnten. Eine Artengruppe besteht aus zwei oder mehr nahe verwandten Arten, die weiträumig sympatrisch oder potentiell sympatrisch leben, d. h. ökologisch kompatibel sind.
Das Kriterium der biologischen Art ist die reproduktive Isolation von Populationen, die in demselben Areal oder in aneinandergrenzenden Gebieten leben (vermutete reproduktive Isolation im Falle allopatrischer Populationen). GegenÜber diesem Isolationskonzept betont das Erkennungskonzept der Art (Recognition Concept) den Besitz eines artspezifischen Erkennungssystems und definiert Spezies ohne Bezugnahme auf andere Arten. Weitere vorgeschlagene Artkonzepte sind entweder enger oder weiter als das der Biospezies, z. B. die Konzepte der phylogenetischen Art, der evolutionären Art und der zoogeographischen Art. Entsprechend diesen Artbegriffen werden Formen sehr unterschiedlicher mikrotaxonomischer Differenzierung zu Arten zusammengefaßt.
Die Auswahl eines Artkonzeptes und der entsprechenden Artumgrenzung bleiben solange subjektiv als keine quantitativen und vergleichenden Untersuchungen vorliegen, welche die Bedeutung der DiskontinuitätslÜcken zwischen Taxa zunehmender mikrotaxonomischer Differenzierung klären und damit eine Unterscheidung ermöglichen von anagenetischen (intraspezifischen) und kladogenetischen (Speziations-)Prozessen. Die Position der Artgrenze unter dem Konzept der biologischen Art erschemt als ein Kompromiß, der den gegenwärtig bekannten Tatsachen am besten gerecht wird.
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