Mosquitoes pose a severe threat to the environment as vectors of numerous harmful diseases affecting humans and animals. Mosquitoes transmit pathogens that cause dengue, chikungunya, malaria, zika, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, and filariasis. Today's mosquito control strategies heavily rely on the use of chemical insecticides such as N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET), N,N-diethyl mandelic acid amide (DEM), and dimethyl phthalate (DMP). However, the widespread use of chemical insecticides has resulted in pollution, bio-magnification, and other health and environmental issues. It has also become ineffective because of the mosquitoes' aptitude to develop resistance, emphasizing the urgent need for safe, effective, and long-lasting strategies. An alternative and promising approach to circumventing these obstacles involves the implementation of insecticides made from natural compounds found in plants. Therefore, the scientific community has shifted its focus towards plant-based phytochemicals, oils, and extracts, as these are eco-friendly, safe, and cost-effective alternatives to conventional chemical insecticides. This review aims to provide details on current advances in plant-based products (plant compounds, extracts, and essential oils), which are used to control all the life cycle stages (egg, larva, pupa, and adult) of the mosquito genera Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex. Hopefully, this review will pave the way to devise control strategies against these challenging pests.
INTRODUCTION
Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) are major arthropod groups that existed over 180–220 million years ago (Gabrieli et al., 2014; Bird & McElroy, 2016; Benelli & Duggan, 2018; Hillary & Ceasar, 2021). Mosquitoes belong to two subfamilies (Gabrieli et al., 2014): Anophelinae (Anopheles) and Culicinae (Aedes, Culex, and Mansonia). These two subfamilies pose a severe threat to humans and animals because of their widespread occurrence. They transmit diseases like dengue, chikungunya, zika, yellow fever, malaria, Japanese encephalitis, and filariasis (Gabrieli et al., 2014; Bird & McElroy, 2016; Benelli & Duggan, 2018; Hillary & Ceasar, 2021). These mosquito-borne diseases endanger people in tropical and subtropical areas, confirming that half of the world's population is at higher risk (WHO, 2017, 2022a). The disease-transmitting female mosquitoes are attracted to host animals through moisture, lactic acid, carbon dioxide, and body heat. They depend on proteins and iron found in the blood to mature their eggs (Glenn et al., 2010). They suck blood using piercing mouthparts (proboscis) comprised of six different stylets (Glenn et al., 2010). The first two stylets act like teeth, and the second pair functions as clamp. The last two stylets inject chemicals into blood vessels to stimulate blood flow, which causes itching and bumps, while the other stylets suck the blood from the body (Kosova, 2003). Pathogen transmission occurs during this process (Kosova, 2003; Hillary et al., 2020).
Every year, the World Health Organization (WHO) reports nearly a billion cases and millions of deaths caused by mosquito-borne diseases (WHO, 2017, 2022a). For example, malaria alone killed >627 000 people in 2020 (WHO, 2022b). Dengue cases also increased eightfold in the last 2 decades (505 430 cases in 2000, >2.4 million in 2010, and 5.2 million in 2019) (WHO, 2017, 2022c). More than 60 countries were prone to chikungunya, which causes severe arthralgia and kills 95% of infected people (the first outbreak of chikungunya started in Kenya in 2004 and moved to India; subsequently, there were reports of local transmissions in Southeast Asia, France, and Italy). Recently, zika virus cases have also significantly increased, and an outbreak of the virus was detected in India in 2021. Climate change has become a severe issue with the rise of these mosquito-borne diseases (Reiter, 2001; Mordecai et al., 2020), due to various factors such as: (1) higher temperatures increase the geographic spread of mosquitoes by helping them to survive and breed (increased rainfall increases the amount of standing water, and droughts support breeding by forming stagnant pools), (2) warmer climates alter the season of disease transmission, and (3) temperature changes the behaviour of mosquitoes, including biting behaviour (WHO, 2022a).
Recent research from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine also found that malaria and dengue could affect about 8 million people worldwide in 2080. In brief, they found that rising global temperatures may contribute to increased dengue and malaria cases (Colón-González et al., 2021). These results were based on the projected population growth of roughly 4.5 billion and a rise in temperature of 3.7 °C by 2100 (Colón-González et al., 2021). Another study also revealed that global changes had increased the risk of mosquito-borne diseases (Baker et al., 2022). However, the history of mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, and dengue shows that human activity and their effects on local ecology have typically been much more significant than the climate in determining their incidence or spread. It is thus inappropriate to estimate future prevalence using climate-based models alone (Reiter, 2001, 2008). The search for effective vaccines against these vector-borne diseases is still in progress (Mordecai et al., 2020). Therefore, we need to find safe and eco-friendly methods to reduce the burden of mosquito-borne diseases.
In order to lower the danger of mosquito-borne diseases, several mosquito life stages, such as eggs, larvae, and pupae, are typically targeted using various chemical insecticides such as carbamates, pyrethroids, organophosphates, N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET), dimethyl phthalate (DMP), and N,N-diethyl mandelic acid amide (DEM) (Benelli, 2015; Ranson & Lissenden, 2016). But use of these chemical insecticides has caused harm on human health, such as vomiting, tremors, shakiness, and seizures (Ranson & Lissenden, 2016). In addition, it has increased mosquito populations globally (WHO, 2018, 2020; Richards et al., 2020). Due to these concerns and problems, researchers diverted their focus on finding novel and ecofriendly alternative mosquito control strategies (Benelli, 2015).
Many plants with bioactive properties have been recognized as important components in traditional medicine and food for humans. These naturally occurring medicinal plants contain various active ingredients (phytochemicals, extracts, and oils), potentially interfering in mosquitoes' life stages (egg, larva, pupa, and adult). In addition, researchers prefer plant-based products against vector mosquitoes as an alternative to harmful chemical insecticides. Several articles have been published on the insecticidal properties of botanicals against vector mosquitoes (Pålsson & Jaenson, 1999; Ghosh et al., 2012; Kalita et al., 2013; Lupi et al., 2013; Rehman et al., 2014; Shaalan & Canyon, 2015; Tehri & Singh, 2015; Naseem et al., 2016; Remia et al., 2017; Hikal et al., 2017; Bekele, 2018; Gharsan, 2019; Noronha et al., 2020; Ganesan et al., 2023). Sukumar et al. (1991) listed and discussed 344 botanical agents with potential mosquitocidal activities. A recent review by Senthil-Nathan et al. (2020) discusses the details of botanicals used for larvicidal activities. The current article is the first comprehensive review focusing on plant-based extracts, phytochemicals, secondary metabolites, and essential oils with their modes of action for controlling Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex species. This review will enable researchers to learn about plant-based products and the potential for improving state-of-the-art mosquito control strategies.
AEDES, ANOPHELES, AND CULEX MOSQUITOES
Aedes species spread significant infectious diseases, notably chikungunya, dengue, and zika. Over half of the world's population has been affected by deadly diseases transmitted by Aedes species (Hales et al., 2002; Yang et al., 2009). Aedes species can be found throughout the world, such as Aedes aegypti L. (primary vector), Aedes albopictus (Skuse) (secondary vector), Aedes mediovittatus (Coquillett) (Caribbean), Aedes polynesiensis Marks (western Pacific region), and Aedes scutellaris (Walker) (western Pacific region) (Honório et al., 2003; Harrington et al., 2005). These mosquitoes are day biters and live in dark places at the corners of houses, under curtains, clothes, umbrellas, etc. They breed in any rainwater or freshwater stored in artificial or natural containers. Eggs from Aedes sp. can stay alive for up to 2 years without water.
The genus Anopheles comprises the second most universally known mosquitoes, involved in transmitting malarial infection to humans. In India, more than 59 Anopheles species are distinguished, and among them, six species – Anopheles stephensi Liston, Anopheles gambiae Giles, Anopheles baimaii Sallum & Peyton, Anopheles culicifacies Giles, Anopheles fluviatilis James, and Anopheles coluzzii Coetzee & Wilkerson – are identified as vectors transmitting malarial disease globally. They live for a few weeks to months and produce thousands of eggs.
Culex is another important genus of mosquitoes found throughout the world. The Culex mosquitoes transmit filariasis, Japanese encephalitis, and avian West Nile fever. They also carry the nematode Wuchereria bancrofti Cobbold, which causes lymphatic filariasis (Holder et al., 1999). They live for a few weeks or months and lay thousands of eggs. Overall, Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex mosquitoes transmit diseases that cause 700 000 deaths annually (WHO, 2017). The burden of these diseases has also considerably increased over the last few years (Ferguson, 2018; Wilson et al., 2020). For example, dengue, chikungunya, zika, malaria, and yellow fever have increased more than 30-fold over the past 50 years. The fast spread of these vector-borne diseases can be explained by several complex factors, such as population growth, globalization, a lack of adequate vector control methods, poor access to high-quality health care, and climate change. Therefore, eco-friendly alternative control measures for managing mosquitoes are required to combat vector-borne diseases.
SYNTHETIC INSECTICIDES USED IN MOSQUITO MANAGEMENT
Many synthetic insecticides have been formulated against vector mosquitoes to reduce vector-borne diseases. But continued use of these synthetic insecticides has caused high toxicity to human skin and the nervous system (Landrigan, 2001; Maurya et al., 2007). Another major drawback with these insecticides is the increased incidence of resistance to these chemicals in mosquitoes, which has added additional concerns for humans. Apart from affecting humans, these chemicals also affect non-target organisms. For example, fish species like Colossoma macropomum (Cuvier), Hyphessobrycon erythrostigma (Fowler), Paracheirodon axelrodi (Schultz), Nannostomus unifasciatus Steindachner, and Otocinclus affinis (Steindachner) exposed to malathion insecticide showed high sensitivity with LC50 values of 111–1507 p.p.m. Nannostomus unifasciatus was the most sensitive (LC50 = 111 p.p.m.; Rico et al., 2011). These five fish species, when exposed to the benzimidazole fungicide carbendazim, also showed moderate toxic action (Rico et al., 2011). These results confirmed that synthetic insecticides are toxic to non-target organisms. In addition, several studies reveal that synthetic insecticides kill important beneficial organisms like birds, honeybees, ladybugs, ground beetles, spiders, hoverflies, lacewings, etc. Therefore, we need natural insecticides without side effects.
NATURAL METHODS FOR MOSQUITO CONTROL
Vector control strategies to prevent mosquito bites and to create a mosquito-free environment have been practiced since ancient times. In the olden days, people used smoke by burning cattle and goat dung to escape from mosquito bites (Kihampa, 2011). Later, they added herbs and the bark of trees to enhance the smoke effect to keep away mosquitoes successfully (Kihampa, 2011). These preliminary works encouraged researchers to investigate plant-based products to control vector mosquitoes (Sukumar et al., 1991). Several reports are available on the application of plant-based products for killing larvae and adult mosquitoes to protect humans from mosquito bites (Sukumar et al., 1991; Pålsson & Jaenson, 1999; Ghosh et al., 2012; Kalita et al., 2013; Lupi et al., 2013; Rehman et al., 2014; Shaalan & Canyon, 2015; Tehri & Singh, 2015; Remia et al., 2017; Hikal et al., 2017; Bekele, 2018; Bukar & Tukur, 2019; Gharsan, 2019; Senthil-Nathan, 2020; Haria, 2021) (Figure 1). These are discussed in detail below.
An overview of plant-based products used against vector mosquitoes to control vector-borne diseases. (A) Vector mosquitoes such as Aedes aegypti, Anopheles stephensi, and Culex quinquefasciatus transmit deadly diseases to humans. (B) Integrated mosquito management (IMM), with the use of whole plants or specific parts of the plants such as flowers, leaves, stem, and roots with various formulations like isolating phytochemicals, plant extract, and oils for larvicidal, ovicidal, pupicidal, and adulticidal control of vector mosquitoes to protect humans from infectious diseases.
PLANT SECONDARY METABOLITES
Plants are well known to produce secondary metabolites, which help the plants from insect pests or diseases (de Souza Wuillda et al., 2019). The secondary metabolites may be divided into five groups (Figure 2): (1) alkaloids, (2) phenolic acids, (3) terpenoids, (4) carbohydrates, and (5) lipids (Bilal & Hassan, 2012). Plant secondary metabolites are vital as anti-nutritional components of food and animal feed. Other secondary metabolites, such as terpenoids, are involved in plant–plant communication, serve as attractants for pollinators, and protect the plants from insect attacks. These overall characteristics reveal that natural insecticides based on plant secondary metabolites may play a more pivotal role in vector control strategies than the existing control strategies (Khan et al., 2018). Therefore, researchers started utilizing plant secondary metabolites to control mosquitoes (de Souza Wuillda et al., 2019). So far, >2000 plant species are known to produce chemical factors and metabolites of value in mosquito control programs (Shaalan et al., 2005). Among the plant-based bioactive compounds, secondary metabolites showed good biological activity against insect pests, including vector mosquitoes (Bilal & Hassan, 2012). For instance, plant secondary metabolites, such as ocimenone, rotenone, capillin, quassin, and thymol, showed good ovicidal, larvicidal, and pupicidal activities against mosquitoes (Shaalan et al., 2005). Specifically, acetogenins from the Annonaceae family have drawn much attention due to their biological activities against mosquitoes (Domínguez-Martínez et al., 2003; Bobadilla et al., 2005). The secondary metabolites isolated from various plant extracts also affected mosquito nerve axons, synapsis, respiratory organs, and hormones (Varma & Dubey, 1999).
Classification of plant chemicals. The plant chemicals are mostly divided into five classes such as carbohydrates, lipids, phenolic acids, terpenoids, and alkaloids based on their characterization and chemical structure.
However, only a few studies have been carried out on the utilization of secondary metabolites against vector mosquitoes, which required further investigations (Bilal & Hassan, 2012; Hazrat & Soaib, 2012; De Marinis, 2013; Giorgi et al., 2013; de Souza Wuillda et al., 2019). Hence, developing novel secondary metabolites from plants against vector mosquitoes would provide safe and harmless control measures in the future. In addition, there is also a need to establish an easy method to extract plant secondary metabolites that can be used at the home level.
Mode of action of secondary metabolites
Generally, the active ingredients of botanical extracts are secondary metabolites that interact with enzymes, receptors, signalling molecules, structural proteins, ion channels, nucleic acids, and other cellular components of target vector mosquitoes (Rattan, 2010). The secondary metabolites exhibited severe physiological disruptions, such as disruption of sodium and potassium ion exchange (caused by pyrethrin), inhibition of the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzyme, inhibition of cellular respiration (caused by rotenone), inhibition of chloride channels (caused by thymol), blockage of calcium channels (ryanodine), inhibition of octopamine receptors (thymol), and disruption of hormonal balance (Rattan, 2010). In these, the key enzyme, AChE (which enhances resistance in mosquitoes to digest organophosphorus and carbamate insecticides), is responsible for terminating nerve impulse transmission through the insect synaptic pathway. Hence, developing novel secondary metabolites to inhibit AChE and other key enzymes of vector mosquitoes may help control vector populations effectively.
PLANT EXTRACTS
The efficacy of plant extracts against vector mosquitoes may vary depending on the species selected, the solvents used for isolation, and their potential. Several studies have documented the effectiveness of plant extracts in controlling vector mosquitoes (Table S1).
Larvicidal activities of plant extracts
Natural extracts derived from plants become substitutes for synthetic insecticides to evaluate mosquito larvicidal activities (Komalamisra et al., 2005; Pavela et al., 2019; Falkowski et al., 2020). Aivazi & Vijayan (2009) assessed the larvicidal activity of Quercus infectoria Oliv. (Fagaceae) gall extracts against An. stephensi under laboratory conditions. Of the gallotannin, acetone, n-butanol, methanol, and ethanol acetate extracts tested, the ethyl acetate extract was found to be highly toxic (LC50 = 116.92 p.p.m.). Further, they used an ethyl acetate extract of Q. infectoria to testing the larvicidal activity against Anopheles subpictus Grassi and Culex tritaeniorhynchus Giles and observed the highest activities with LC50 = 67.24 and 88.50 p.p.m., respectively. From these results, they declared that Q. infectoria would effectively kill mosquitoes and control vector populations (Aivazi & Vijayan, 2009). Different plant parts of Ipomocea cairica (L.) Sweet were assessed for larvicidal efficacy against Aedes species. In those, acetone extract of I. cairica leaf was found to be the most potent against Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus (both LC50 = 450 p.p.m.; AhbiRami et al., 2014). A study on Glyosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC. leaf extract exhibited the highest larvicidal activities against three major vectors: Ae. aegypti, An. stephensi, and Culex quinquefasciatus (Say). The leaf extracts had larvicidal activity with LC50 values of 266.9, 0.4, and 58.5 p.p.m. against Ae. aegypti, An. stephensi, and Cx. quinquefasciatus, respectively (Ramkumar et al., 2016). The petroleum ether extract of Lantana camera L. and Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Kuntze was assessed against Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus larvae; it showed maximum larvicidal activity values of LC50 = 10.63 and 38.39 p.p.m. against Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus, respectively (Hari & Mathew, 2018). The acetone extracts of L. camara, Rhazyz stricta Decne., Acalypha fruticose Forssk., and Ruta chalepensis L. exhibited good larvicidal activities against Culex pipens L. larvae. Among these, the acetone extract of L. camara showed the highest mortality against Cx. pipens (LC50 = 168 p.p.m.), followed by those of R. stricta, A. fruticose, and R. chalepensis (LC50 = 248.7, 374.4, and 539.3, respectively; Al-Solami, 2021). These studies indicate that extracts from various medicinal plants have good larvicidal activities against Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex mosquitoes. Several other plant extracts have shown significant mosquito larvicidal activity (Table S1).
Pupicidal activities of plant extracts
Extracts from many plants have been tested for pupicidal activities against vector mosquitoes to combat infectious diseases (Table S1). The pupicidal activity investigated against An. stephensi using Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) (Leguminosae) extract under laboratory conditions, recorded the highest mortality with an LC50 of 58.10 p.p.m. (Krishnappa et al., 2012). In another study, whole-plant extracts of Leucas aspera Willd. exhibited the highest mortality against pupae of An. stephensi, with an LC50 of 12.73 and an LC90 of 18.78 p.p.m. Extracts of L. aspera seem to potentially control the malarial vector An. stephensi, and may also act as a potentially safe insecticide against Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus (Kovendan et al., 2012). The petroleum ether, acetone, ethyl acetate, water, methanol, and ethanol extracts of Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms were tested for pupicidal activity against Cx. quinquefasciatus. Of all the extracts, ethanol extract had the highest mortality rate against Cx. quinquefasciatus, with an LC50 of 173.35 p.p.m. (Jayanthi et al., 2012). The seed kernel extract of soapnut (Sapindus emarginatus L.) showed good pupicidal activities against Ae. aegypti, An. stephensi, and Cx. quinquefasciatus. It exhibited 100% pupicidal mortality with an LC50 of 4.13 p.p.m. against Cx. quinquefasciatus, an LC50 of 3.64 p.p.m. against An. stephensi, and an LC50 of 3.52 p.p.m. against Ae. aegypti (Koodalingam et al., 2009). The hexane crude extracts of Solanum xanthocarpum L. exhibited the highest pupicidal activity with an LC50 of 448.41 p.p.m. and an LC90 of 1141.65 p.p.m. against Cx. quinquefasciatus. The hexane extract of Artemisia nilagirica L. revealed the highest pupicidal activity, with an LC50 of 542.11 p.p.m. and an LC90 of 991.29 p.p.m. against Cx. quinquefasciatus, and LC50 of 477.23 p.p.m. and an LC90 of 959.30 p.p.m. against Ae. aegypti (Panneerselvam et al., 2012). Hence, an hexane extract of A. nilagirica could be effective against Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus (Panneerselvam et al., 2012). These comprehensive studies indicate that extracts from medicinal plants have potent pupicidal activities against Ae. aegypti, An. stephensi, and Cx. quinquefasciatus. However, further studies are still needed to achieve a 100% mortality against vector mosquitoes to combat vector-borne diseases.
Ovicidal activities of plant extracts
Plant extracts have also been tested for ovicidal activities against vector mosquitoes (Benelli, 2015). For example, medicinal plants such as Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees, Cassia accidentalis (L.) Link, and Euphrobia hirta L. have been utilized for ovicidal activities against An. stephensi mosquitoes. Using A. paniculata, C. accidentalis, and E. hirta plants, the authors isolated extracts of hexane, ethyl acetate, benzene, water, and methanol and performed ovicidal activity against An. stephensi. After 48 h of treatment, the methanolic extract of A. paniculata showed 100% ovicidal activity at 150 p.p.m., and the methanolic extracts of C. accidentalis and E. hirta revealed 100% ovicidal activity at 300 p.p.m. against An. stephensi (Panneerselvam & Murugan, 2013). The ovicidal activity against An. stephensi was performed with crude hexane, ethyl acetate, benzene, chloroform, and methanol extracts from the leaves of Eclipta alba (L.) L., Cardiospermum halicacabum L., and A. paniculata. After 48 h of treatment, 100% mortality was observed in the methanol and ethyl acetate extracts of A. paniculata and the methanol extract of E. alba at 200 p.p.m., whereas the benzene extract of C. halicacabum showed 100% mortality at 150 p.p.m. (Govindarajan, 2011). Elango et al. (2009) tested acetone, ethyl acetate, and methanol extracts from Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa, Andrographis lineata Nees, and Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W.Theob. against An. subpictus. The acetone, ethyl acetate, and methanol extracts gave the highest mortality of 88.3% (Ae. marmelos), 92.8% (An. lineata), and 94.0% (C. hirsutus), and the lowest mortality of 64.9% (Ae. marmelos), 71.1% (An. lineata), and 66.4% (C. hirsutus) against An. subpictus. Surprisingly, this is the first report on ovicidal activities against malarial vectors from southern India (Elango et al., 2009).
In another study, acetone, ethyl acetate, and methanol extracts of A. paniculata, Eclipta prostarta (L.) L., and Tagetes erecta L. were assessed for ovicidal activities against Ae. aegypti eggs. They recorded 100% mortality in ethyl acetate and methanol extracts (Baluselvakumar et al., 2012). Similarly, acetone, benzene, hexane, ethyl acetate, and methanol extracts of Melothria maderaspatana L. recorded 100% mortality against Ae. aegypti eggs at 240–120 p.p.m. (Baluselvakumar et al., 2012). Crude hexane, benzene, ethyl acetate, acetone, and methanol extracts of Acalypha alnifolia Klein ex Willd. were tested for ovicidal activities against Ae. aegypti, An. stephensi, and Cx. quinquefasciatus – the methanolic extract of A. alnifolia showed 100% mortality at 200 p.p.m. against all three mosquito species (Kovendan et al., 2013). Several other studies using various plants have also been checked for ovicidal activities to combat vector mosquitoes (Table S1). Intervention at the egg stage is generally the most effective and inexpensive way to control vector mosquitoes. However, these interventions may have some limitations against Ae. aegypti mosquitoes as they breed in different water sources.
Adulticidal activities of plant extracts
Plant extracts were also examined for adulticidal activities against vector mosquitoes (Table S1). Kamaraj et al. (2010) tested the adulticidal activity of eight plants – Aristolochia indica L., Senna angustifolia Mill., Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb., Dolichos biflorus L., Gymnema sylvestre R.Br., Justicia procumbens L., Mimosa pudica L., and Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm. – in hexane, ethyl acetate, and methanol extracts against Culex gelidus Theobald and Cx. quinquefasciatus. The ethyl acetate extract of all eight plants exhibited the highest adulticidal activities against both mosquitoes (Kamaraj et al., 2010). The ethanol extracts of Eucalyptus globulus Labill., Cymbopogan citratus (DC.) Stapf, Artemisia gmelinii Weber ex Stechm, Justicia gendarussa Burm. fil., Myristica fragrans Houtt, Annona squamosal L., and Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. showed 100% adulticidal activity against An. stephensi (Senthilkumar et al., 2009). The highest adulticidal activity of Piper sarmentosum Roxb. with an LC50 of 0.14 p.p.m. against female Ae. aegypti was noted (Choochote et al., 2006). The ethanol extract of Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze showed adulticidal activity with LC50 = 272.1 and LC90 = 457.14 p.p.m. against An. stephensi, LC50 = 289.62 and LC90 = 457.14 p.p.m. against Ae. aegypti, and LC50 = 320.38 and LC90 = 524.57 p.p.m. against Cx. quinquefasciatus. In another study, methanol extract of A. alnifolia leaf showed 100% adulticidal activity (LC50 = 125 p.p.m.) against Ae. aegypti, An. stephensi, and Cx. quinquefasciatus (Kovendan et al., 2013).
Overall, plant extracts are promising for controlling vector mosquitoes at different life stages. However, prior to their use, these plant extracts must be verified for any acute or chronic toxicity against non-target organisms and humans (Ganesan et al., 2023).
Mode of action of plant extracts
The plant extracts generally target cellular mechanisms and potentially disturb the cellular functions of vector mosquitoes (Ganesan et al., 2023). The extracts from Piper nigrum L. exhibited larvicidal activity by reducing the enzyme levels of α- and β-carboxylesterase in Ae. aegypti (Lija-Escaline et al., 2015). The extracts of Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wangerin also reduced the levels of α- and β-carboxylesterase and superoxide dismutase enzymes in Ae. aegypti larvae (Thanigaivel et al., 2017). Water extract of Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (fenugreek) exhibited a larvicidal effect against Cx. quinquefasciatus by affecting various body tissues, including the midgut and nervous systems (Fallatah, 2010). Aristolochic acids, isolated from A. indica A. Juss., disturbed the epithelium layer (EL), muscles, and cells of An. stephensi larvae (Pradeepa et al., 2015). Similarly, the methanolic extract of A. catechu (L.f.) Willd. disturbed the midgut of Ae. aegypti larvae (Costa et al., 2012). Therefore, identifying novel plant extracts that disrupt cellular pathways is the best option for controlling mosquitoes.
PLANT COMPOUNDS
Mosquito control activities of plant compounds may vary due to numerous factors, such as plant species, plant parts, plant compounds, and the targeted vector mosquito species. Plant compounds from numerous species have exhibited ovicidal, larvicidal, pupicidal, and adulticidal activities against major vector mosquito species (Table S2). These plant compounds are recognized as carrying potential biocontrol properties and alternatives to synthetic chemical insecticides (Tripathi et al., 2009; Nyasembe & Torto, 2014; Tehri & Singh, 2015; Muema et al., 2017).
Plant compounds such as retrofractamide A, pipercide, guineensine, pellitorine, and piperine from Piper nigrum L. fruits showed good activity against Ae. aegypti larvae with LC50 of 0.039, 0.1, 0.89, 0.92, and 5.1 p.p.m., respectively. Spipnoohine and pipyahyine obtained from the petroleum ether extract of P. nigrum L. showed toxicity at 35.0 and 30.0 p.p.m. against Ae. aegypti larvae (Park et al., 2002). Nepseudin isolated from the roots of Cordia curassavica (Jacq.) Roem. & Schult., 4-methoxyneoduline isolated from Neorautanenia mitis (A.Rich.) Verdc., lapachol isolated from Cybistax antisyphilitica (Mart.) Mart., and ponscirin, naringin, and marmesin isolated from Poncirus trifoliata var. monstrosa (T.Itô) Swingle (Rajkumar & Jebanesan, 2008) revealed good larvicidal activity against Ae. aegypti, An. stephensi, and Cx. quinquefasciatus. 5-Methoxy psoralen and 8-methoxy psoralen isolated from Ficus carica L. showed LC50 of 9.4 and 56.3 p.p.m. and LC90 of 3.58 and 26.27 p.p.m. against Ae. aegypti larvae (Chung et al., 2011). Methyl-p-hydroxybenzoate derived from the methanol extract of Vitex trifolia L. showed robust larvicidal activity with LC50 values of 5.7 and 4.7 p.p.m. against Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus, respectively (Kannathasan et al., 2011). With their unique modes of action, some of these compounds may serve as scaffolds to develop safe insecticides shortly. Several other plant compounds have been reported as potential mosquitocidal agents against vector mosquitoes, tabulated in Table S2.
Mode of action of plant compounds
The plant compounds disturb proteins, ion channels, nucleic acids, and other cellular components in mosquitoes. Subsequently, these compounds disturb the central nervous system, receptor sites, and other cellular mechanisms. For example, the neem-based compound ‘NeemAzal’ was used against Ae. aegypti. The larvae treated with NeemAzal showed an increased level of protein (31%), carboxylesterase (121%), β-carboxylesterase (46%), alkaline phosphatase (37%), and acid phosphatase (62%). The pupae treated with NeemAzal had higher levels of AChE (116%) and acid phosphatase (43%), lower levels of β-carboxylesterase (12%) and α-carboxylesterase (46%), and no significant changes in alkaline phosphatase enzyme. These results confirmed that the plant compounds present in NeemAzal are actively involved in disturbing the enzymes of Ae. aegypti (Koodalingam et al., 2014). Another plant compound, plumbagin, isolated from the rhizome of Plumnago zeylanica L., disturbed the AChE enzyme of An. stephensi (Pradeepa et al., 2014). Therefore, if we can find plant compounds that will disrupt or deactivate other major enzymes such as Cytochrome P450's (enhance resistance in mosquitoes to digest pesticides), glutathione transferase (helps mosquitoes to survive exposure to pesticides), and vitellogenin (encodes yolk protein precursors for egg production), they will be beneficial to control vector mosquitoes effectively.
The midgut is an important organ involved in major processes such as digestion, ion transport, and osmoregulation. The gut region of mosquito larvae is commonly targeted using various plant compounds. For example, Senthilnathan et al. (2008) targeted the gut EL using a triterpene compound from Dysoxylum spp., which reduced the enzyme activity of the EL (Nathan et al., 2008). Catechin from L. aspera affected the midguts of Ae. aegypti, An. stephensi, and Cx. quinquefasciatus. The aristolochic acids derived from A. indica affected the midguts and larval muscles of Cx. quinquefasciatus larvae (Pradeepa et al., 2015). Similarly, oleic, linolic, and linolenic acids damage the Cx. quinquefasciatus larval midgut and fat body (de Melo et al., 2018). Therefore, identifying novel plant compounds to deactivate the enzymes or impair the midgut of vector mosquitoes may serve as effective control methods in mosquito management programs.
PLANT OILS
Several plant volatile oils derived from steam distillation are used against vector mosquitoes (Table S3). Plants such as Ocimum basilicium L., Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit., Salvia spp., Thymus spp., and many species from the grass family (Poaceae) contain oils such as lemongrass, citronella, and palmarosa. They possess good control activity (for 8 h) against vector mosquitoes. In Malaysia and Kuala Lumpur, people use essential oils derived from Litsea elliptica (Nees) Hook. fil., Polygonum minus Hudson, Piper aduncum L., Melaleuca cajuputi Powell, and Cymbopogan nardus (L.) Rendle as potential mosquito control agents (Rohani et al., 1997; Sulaiman et al., 2001). Cymbopogon excavatus (Hook. & Arn.) Stapf and C. nardus oils showed good activities for 2 h against vector mosquitoes (Govere et al., 2000). Lippia polystachya Griseb. and L. turbinate (Poleo) oils were tested for larvicidal effects against Cx. quinquefasciatus at concentrations of 0–160 p.p.m. in 100 mL distilled water for 24 h. After 24 h of treatment, the oils showed good larvicidal activities, with LC50 = 74.9 p.p.m. and LC90 = 124.9 p.p.m. (Gleiser & Zygadlo, 2007). The oil of Atalantia monophylla (L.) DC. had good larvicidal activities against Ae. aegypti, Cx. quinquefasciatus, and An. Stephensi, with LC50 ranging from 7 to 16 p.p.m. (Baskar et al., 2018). The volatile crude oil derived from Piper betle L. showed dose-dependent larvicidal activity against Ae. aegypti (Vasantha-Srinivasan et al., 2018). Using plant volatile oils as mosquito insecticides is well known and has many advantages (Soonwera, 2015a; De Souza et al., 2019; Luz et al., 2020; Marques et al., 2021). These oils are also effective and have a pleasant smell, making them acceptable for daily use and avoiding mosquito bites, which is also an excellent alternative to synthetic insecticides.
Mode of action of plant oils
Plant volatile oils are a good source for vector control as they possess diverse molecules with insect-control properties. The volatile oils derived from Commiphora molmol Engl. ex Tschirch affected the proteins of Cx. pipens. Similarly, the volatile oils from Allium sativum L. and Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck reduced the total protein level in Cx. pipens (Liu et al., 2014). Another volatile oil from the Alaskan yellow cider tree inhibited 50% of AChE enzyme activity in Ae. aegypti (Anderson & Coats, 2012). Piper betle L. oil also altered enzyme levels in Ae. aegypti (Vasantha-Srinivasan et al., 2018). Currently, only a few volatile oils are available to deter vector mosquitoes. Hence, identifying influential novel volatile oils from plants will provide new opportunities to control vector mosquitoes.
PLANT-BASED BIOINSECTICIDES FOR MOSQUITO CONTROL
Using chemical insecticides to get rid of mosquitoes is linked to severe health problems and, more importantly, the rise of mosquito resistance to the chemicals (Ohia & Ana, 2015; Dara, 2017). These situations have led scientists to look for safe and natural solutions, good for the environment and effective. Subsequently, scientists found that plant-based compounds have potential mosquitocidal activities. In addition to these phytocompounds, researchers found that bioinsecticides from plants are also good alternatives to chemical insecticides, which also affect numerous target locations in insects, including mosquitoes (Ohia & Ana, 2015; Dara, 2017; Şengül Demirak & Canpolat, 2022). For example, neem-based insecticides effectively controlled the mosquitoes and posed a lower risk of inducing resistance because of their multiple modes of action on mosquitoes (Pant et al., 2012). Another significant advantage of neem-based insecticides is that they require only a low concentration to control mosquitoes (Pant et al., 2012). The karanja oil-based insecticides also managed mosquitoes effectively (Pant et al., 2012). Similarly, acetogenin bioinsecticides have drawn much attention due to their biological activities against mosquitoes (Coria-Téllez et al., 2018; Louis et al., 2022).
Natural pyrethrins are also used as a substitute for synthetic dithiothreitol (DTT) (Schleier et al., 2011). However, they suffer from severe limitations, such as high instability and rapid disintegration in the presence of sunshine, which requires further investigation (Schleier et al., 2011). But, applying pyrethrin-based insecticides against Culex and Anopheles after sundown has decreased mosquito populations and provided protection (Veronesi et al., 2012). Despite our increasing knowledge of plant-based insecticides, only a few of them, such as neem-based insecticides, are commercially available on the market for mosquito control (Isman et al., 2011). One of the reasons for their limited use in the field is their formulation issues. Each commercially available plant-based insecticide composition should be formulated clearly in such a way that it should be bioactive to target insects and non-toxic to non-target organisms. Additionally, the formulation of these plant-based insecticides should make it possible to produce them in large amounts through plant biomass production and deliver them at prescribed dosages to reduce adverse effects and retain biological activity over a longer period. However, further studies are needed to develop bioinsecticides from various plants.
FUTURE OUTLOOK
Mosquitoes are a major cause of human arboviral diseases, such as dengue, the fastest-growing mosquito-borne disease, now endemic in more than 100 countries worldwide (WHO, 2017). As there are no commercial vaccines for diseases spread by mosquitoes, chemical insecticides are usually used to control mosquitoes. But the repeated use of chemical insecticides has caused alarm in the international scientific community via multiple study results (Margni et al., 2002; Desneux et al., 2007; Roghelia & Patel, 2017). These studies showed that chemical insecticides harm humans, animals, fish, and arthropods that are not their intended targets (Roghelia & Patel, 2017). This situation forced scientists to come up with new, effective, and environmentally acceptable ways to combat mosquitoes. Through continuous research, researchers have found plants that contain several compounds to be an excellent method to eliminate mosquitoes (Thiyagarajan et al., 2014; Siegwart et al., 2015). Several studies also have confirmed the effectiveness of plants against vector mosquitoes. But only a few biopesticides – such as citronella, pyrethrins, resmethrin, and neem (Neem Azal, Tre-san, MiteStop, Picksan LouseStop, and Wash Away Louse, all based on neem seed extracts) – are commercially produced and extensively used in mosquito control programs.
Besides these plant compounds, nanotechnology is another new technology with many potential uses in mosquito control (Borase et al., 2013; Hajra & Mondal, 2015; Zhang et al., 2016; Pilaquinga et al., 2019). This nanotechnology created novel nanoscale materials while remaining environmentally friendly. Therefore, recently, researchers synthesized nanoparticles (NPs) from botanical plants and started using them to eliminate mosquitoes. The phytochemical parts of plant extracts can break down the structure of an element into NPs more effectively than other natural sources (Borase et al., 2013; Hajra & Mondal, 2015; Zhang et al., 2016; Pilaquinga et al., 2019). Researchers also have found that organic compounds (polysaccharides, lipids, and proteins) and inorganic metals (such as silver nitrate, zinc, copper, gold, selenium, and sulfate) synthesized from plant extracts effectively control mosquitoes (Priya & Santhi, 2014; Soni & Prakash, 2014; Benelli, 2016; Benelli et al., 2017a; Foko et al., 2021). For example, synthesized silver, zinc, selenium, and gold NPs incorporating plant extracts displayed efficient larvicidal activity at deficient concentrations against mosquitoes (Borase et al., 2013; Hajra & Mondal, 2015; Zhang et al., 2016; Pilaquinga et al., 2019). Additionally, synthesized plant-derived NPs are considered cost-effective, ecologically benign, and time-efficient because they do not require high pressure, energy, temperature, or toxic chemicals (Jinu et al., 2018; Murugan et al., 2018). Overall, research suggests that the synthesis of plant-derived NPs can be used as an ideal eco-friendly approach for controlling mosquitoes in the future.
In light of these developments, it is important to also discuss their possible negative effect on the environment and non-target organisms (Calderón-Jiménez et al., 2017; Kalpana & Devi Rajeswari, 2018; Lekamge et al., 2018; Singh et al., 2018; Tunçsoy, 2018; Dikshit et al., 2021). For instance, research on the toxicity of Ag NPs on gram-negative bacteria showed severe damage to DNA when they interact with compounds that contain sulphur and phosphorus (Morones et al., 2005). Similarly, titanium dioxide NPs (TiO2 NPs) inhibited Bombyx mori (L.)'s development and moulting duration (Li et al., 2014). Studies on non-target organisms like zebrafish, earthworms, and bees also revealed toxicity of NPs (Zhu et al., 2008; Kim et al., 2014; Vicario-Parés et al., 2014; Kalpana & Devi Rajeswari, 2018). These results revealed that NPs have side effects on the animal kingdom, whether aquatic or terrestrial. A detailed toxicological survey of NPs is thus needed to help them be used in more ways and commercially.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Edwin Hillary: Conceptualization (lead); writing – original draft (lead); writing – review and editing (equal). S. Antony Ceasar: Conceptualization (equal); visualization (lead); writing – original draft (equal); writing – review and editing (equal). Ignacimuthu Savarimuthu: Conceptualization (supporting); writing – original draft (supporting); writing – review and editing (supporting).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors thank the Rajagiri College of Social Sciences for the research support.
FUNDING INFORMATION
This work was financially supported by Rajagiri College of Social Sciences (Autonomous), Kerala, India, under Seed Money for Faculty Minor Research.
Table S1. Details of crude extracts derived from various plant families and their mosquitocidal activities against vector-borne mosquitoes: plant family, plant species, plant parts used, nature of crude extract, targeted mosquito species, lethal concentrations, and literature sources.
Table S2. Details on phytochemical compounds derived from various plant families and their mosquitocidal activities of vector-borne mosquitoes: plant family, plant species, isolated phytochemicals, phytochemical structure, molecular formula, targeted mosquito species, and literature sources.
Table S3. Details of essential oil isolated from medicinal plants and their mosquitocidal activities against vector-borne mosquitoes: plant family, plant species, plant part used, mosquito species targeted, and literature sources.
Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.
REFERENCES
Aciole SDG (2009) Avaliação da Actividade Insecticida dos Óleos Essenciais nas Plantas Amazônicas Annonaceae, Boraginaceae e de Mata Atlântica Myrtaceae Como Alternativa de Controle às Larvas de Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762) (Diptera: Culicidae). PhD Dissertation, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal.
Aciole SDG, Piccoli CF, Costa EV, Navarro-Silva MA, Marques FA et al. (2011) Insecticidal activity of three species of Guatteria (Annonaceae) against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). Revista Colombiana de Entomología37: 262–268.
Aguiar JCD, Santiago GMP, Lavor PL, Veras HNH, Ferreira YS et al. (2010) Chemical constituents and larvicidal activity of Hymenaea courbaril fruit peel. Natural Product Communications5: 1977–1980.
Aguilera L, Navarro A, Tacoronte JE, Leyva M & Marquetti MC (2003) Efecto letal de myrtaceas cubanas sobre Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). Revista Cubana de Medicina Tropical55: 100–104.
AhbiRami R, Zuharah WF, Thiagaletchumi M, Subramaniam S & Sundarasekar J (2014) Larvicidal efficacy of different plant parts of railway creeper, Ipomoea cairica extract against dengue vector mosquitoes, Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) and Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Insect Science14: 180.
Aivazi A-A & Vijayan VA (2009) Larvicidal activity of oak Quercus infectoria Oliv. (Fagaceae) gall extracts against Anopheles stephensi Liston. Parasitology Research104: 1289–1293.
Al-Solami HM (2021) Larvicidal activity of plant extracts by inhibition of detoxification enzymes in Culex pipiens. Journal of King Saud University-Science33: 101371.
Al-Doghairi M, El-Nadi A, Elhag E & Al-Ayedh H (2004) Effect of Solenostemma argel on oviposition, egg hatchability and viability of Culex pipiens L. larvae. Phytotherapy Research18: 335–338.
Albuquerque MRJR, Costa SMO, Bandeira PN, Santiago GMP, Andrade-Neto M et al. (2007) Nematicidal and larvicidal activities of the essential oils from aerial parts of Pectis oligocephala and Pectis apodocephala Baker. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências79: 209–213.
Albuquerque MRJR, Silveira ER, De A. Uchôa DE, Lemos TLG, Souza EB et al. (2004) Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of the essential oils from Eupatorium betonicaeforme (DC) Baker (Asteraceae). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry52: 6708–6711.
Ali SI, Gopalakrishnan B & Venkatesalu V (2018) Evaluation of larvicidal activity of Senecio laetus Edgew. against the malarial vector, Anopheles stephensi, dengue vector, Aedes aegypti and Bancroftian filariasis vector, Culex quinquefasciatus. South African Journal of Botany114: 117–125.
Ali A, Tabanca N, Demirci B, Baser KHC, Ellis J et al. (2013) Composition, mosquito larvicidal, biting deterrent and antifungal activity of essential oils of different plant parts of Cupressus arizonica var. glabra (‘Carolina Sapphire’). Natural Product Communications8: 1934578X1300800232.
Amazonas Maciel Magalhães L, da Paz Lima M, Ortiz Mayo Marques M, Facanali R, Pinto AC da S& Pedro Tadei W (2010) Chemical composition and larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti larvae of essential oils from four Guarea species. Molecules15: 5734–5741.
Amer A & Mehlhorn H (2006) Larvicidal effects of various essential oils against Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex larvae (Diptera, Culicidae). Parasitology Research99: 466–472.
Anderson JA & Coats JR (2012) Acetylcholinesterase inhibition by nootkatone and carvacrol in arthropods. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology102: 124–128.
Anees AM (2008) Larvicidal activity of Ocimum sanctum Linn. (Labiatae) against Aedes aegypti (L.) and Culex quinquefasciatus (Say). Parasitology Research103: 1451–1453.
Arapi FV, Michaelakis A, Evergetis E, Koliopoulos G & Haroutounian SA (2012) Essential oils of indigenous in Greece six Juniperus taxa. Parasitology Research110: 1829–1839.
De Araújo IF, De Araújo PHF, Ferreira RMA, Sena IDS, Lima AL et al. (2018) Larvicidal effect of hydroethanolic extract from the leaves of Acmella oleracea LRK Jansen in Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus. South African Journal of Botany117: 134–140.
Arivoli S, Ravindran KJ & Samuel T (2012) Larvicidal efficacy of plant extracts against the malarial vector Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae). World Journal of Medical Sciences7: 77–80.
Arriaga ÂMC, Feitosa EMA, Lemos TLG, Santiago GMP, Lima JQ et al. (2008) Chemical constituents and insecticidal activity of Rollinia leptopetala (Annonaceae). Natural Product Communications3: 1934578X0800301021.
Arriaga AMC, Rodrigues FEA, Lemos TLG, de Oliveira M da CF, Lima JQ et al. (2007) Composition and larvicidal activity of essential oil from Stemodia maritima L. Natural Product Communications2: 1934578X0700201209.
Autran ES, Neves IA, Da Silva CSB, Santos GKN, Da Câmara CAG & Navarro D (2009) Chemical composition, oviposition deterrent and larvicidal activities against Aedes aegypti of essential oils from Piper marginatum Jacq. (Piperaceae). Bioresource Technology100: 2284–2288.
Bagavan A, Kamaraj C, Rahuman AA, Elango G, Zahir AA & Pandiyan G (2009) Evaluation of larvicidal and nymphicidal potential of plant extracts against Anopheles subpictus Grassi, Culex tritaeniorhynchus Giles and Aphis gossypii Glover. Parasitology Research104: 1109–1117.
Bagavan A & Rahuman AA (2011) Evaluation of larvicidal activity of medicinal plant extracts against three mosquito vectors. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine4: 29–34.
Bailão EFLC, Pereira DG, Romano CA, de Santana Paz AT, Machado e Silva T et al. (2022) Larvicidal effect of the Citrus limettioides peel essential oil on Aedes aegypti. South African Journal of Botany144: 257–260.
Baker RE, Mahmud AS, Miller IF, Rajeev M, Rasambainarivo F et al. (2022) Infectious disease in an era of global change. Nature Reviews Microbiology20: 193–205.
Balasubramani G, Ramkumar R, Krishnaveni N, Sowmiya R, Deepak P et al. (2015) GC–MS analysis of bioactive components and synthesis of gold nanoparticle using Chloroxylon swietenia DC leaf extract and its larvicidal activity. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology148: 1–8.
Baluselvakumar GJ, Elumalai K, Dhanasekaran S, Anandan A & Krishnappa K (2012) Mosquito ovicidal and repellent activity of Melothria maderaspatana plant leaf extracts against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). International Journal of Recent Scientific Research3: 325–328.
Baranitharan M, Krishnappa K, Elumalai K, Pandiyan J, Gokulakrishnan J et al. (2020) Citrus limetta (Risso)-borne compound as novel mosquitocides: effectiveness against medical pest and acute toxicity on non-target fauna. South African Journal of Botany128: 218–224.
Baskar K, Sudha V, Nattudurai G, Ignacimuthu S, Duraipandiyan V et al. (2018) Larvicidal and repellent activity of the essential oil from Atalantia monophylla on three mosquito vectors of public health importance, with limited impact on non-target zebra fish. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology101: 197–201.
Baz MM, Hegazy MM, Khater HF & El-Sayed YA (2021) Comparative evaluation of five oil-resin plant extracts against the mosquito larvae, Culex pipiens Say (Diptera: Culicidae). Pakistan Veterinary Journal41: 191–196.
Benelli G (2015) Plant-borne ovicides in the fight against mosquito vectors of medical and veterinary importance: a systematic review. Parasitology Research114: 3201–3212.
Benelli G (2016) Plant-mediated biosynthesis of nanoparticles as an emerging tool against mosquitoes of medical and veterinary importance: a review. Parasitology Research115: 23–34.
Benelli G, Caselli A & Canale A (2017a) Nanoparticles for mosquito control: challenges and constraints. Journal of King Saud University-Science29: 424–435.
Benelli G & Duggan MF (2018) Management of arthropod vector data – Social and ecological dynamics facing the One Health perspective. Acta Tropica182: 80–91.
Benelli G, Govindarajan M, Rajeswary M, Senthilmurugan S, Vijayan P et al. (2017b) Larvicidal activity of Blumea eriantha essential oil and its components against six mosquito species, including Zika virus vectors: the promising potential of (4E, 6Z)-allo-ocimene, carvotanacetone and dodecyl acetate. Parasitology Research116: 1175–1188.
Beula JM, Ravikumar S & Ali MS (2011) Mosquito larvicidal efficacy of seaweed extracts against dengue vector of Aedes aegypti. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine1: S143–S146.
Bobadilla M, Zavala F, Sisniegas M, Zavaleta G, Mostacero J & Taramona L (2005) Evaluación larvicida de suspensiones acuosas de Annona muricata Linnaeus «guanábana» sobre Aedes aegypti Linnaeus (Diptera, Culicidae). Revista Peruana de Biología12: 145–152.
Borah R, Kalita MC, Kar A & Talukdar AK (2010) Larvicidal efficacy of Toddalia asiatica (Linn.) Lam against two mosquito vectors Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus. African Journal of Biotechnology9: 2527–2530.
Bouabida H & Dris D (2020) Effect of rue (Ruta graveolens) essential oil on mortality, development, biochemical and biomarkers of Culiseta longiareolata. South African Journal of Botany133: 139–143.
Bukar A & Tukur Z (2019) Plant extracts as a source of bio-insecticide for mosquito control, review. International Journal of Mosquito Research6: 81–84.
Carroll AR & Taylor WC (1991) Constituents of Eupomatia species. XIII. The structures of new lignans from the tubers and aerial parts of Eupomatia bennettii. Australian Journal of Chemistry44: 1627–1633.
Cavalcanti ESB, Morais SM de, Lima MAA & Santana EWP (2004) Larvicidal activity of essential oils from Brazilian plants against Aedes aegypti L. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz99: 541–544.
Cetin H, Cinbilgel I, Yanikoglu A & Gokceoglu M (2006) Larvicidal activity of some Labiatae (Lamiaceae) plant extracts from Turkey. Phytotherapy Research20: 1088–1090.
Cetin H, Yanikoglu A & Cilek JE (2011) Larvicidal activity of selected plant hydrodistillate extracts against the house mosquito, Culex pipiens, a West Nile virus vector. Parasitology Research108: 943–948.
Chaithong U, Choochote W, Kamsuk K, Jitpakdi A, Tippawangkosol P et al. (2006) Larvicidal effect of pepper plants on Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Vector Ecology31: 138–144.
Chansang U, Zahiri NS, Bansiddhi J, Boonruad T, Thongsrirak P et al. (2005) Mosquito larvicidal activity of aqueous extracts of long pepper (Piper retrofractum Vahl) from Thailand. Journal of Vector Ecology30: 195.
Cheng S, Chang H, Lin C, Chen P, Huang C et al. (2009) Insecticidal activities of leaf and twig essential oils from Clausena excavata against Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus larvae. Pest Management Science65: 339–343.
Cheng S-S, Chua M-T, Chang E-H, Huang C-G, Chen W-J & Chang S-T (2009) Variations in insecticidal activity and chemical compositions of leaf essential oils from Cryptomeria japonica at different ages. Bioresource Technology100: 465–470.
Cheng SS, Lin CY, Chung MJ, Liu YH, Huang CG & Chang ST (2013) Larvicidal activities of wood and leaf essential oils and ethanolic extracts from Cunninghamia konishii Hayata against the dengue mosquitoes. Industrial Crops and Products47: 310–315.
Cheng S-S, Liu J-Y, Tsai K-H, Chen W-J & Chang S-T (2004) Chemical composition and mosquito larvicidal activity of essential oils from leaves of different Cinnamomum osmophloeum provenances. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry52: 4395–4400.
Choochote W, Chaithong U, Kamsuk K, Rattanachanpichai E, Jitpakdi A et al. (2006) Adulticidal activity against Stegomyia aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) of three Piper spp. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo48: 33–37.
Choochote W, Chaiyasit D, Kanjanapothi D, Rattanachanpichai E, Jitpakdi A et al. (2005) Chemical composition and anti-mosquito potential of rhizome extract and volatile oil derived from Curcuma aromatica against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Vector Ecology30: 302.
Choochote W, Tuetun B, Kanjanapothi D, Rattanachanpichai E, Chaithong U et al. (2004) Potential of crude seed extract of celery, Apium graveolens L., against the mosquito Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Vector Ecology29: 340–346.
Chowdhury N, Chatterjee SK, Laskar S & Chandra G (2009) Larvicidal activity of Solanum villosum Mill (Solanaceae: Solanales) leaves to Anopheles subpictus Grassi (Diptera: Culicidae) with effect on non-target Chironomus circumdatus Kieffer (Diptera: Chironomidae). Journal of Pest Science82: 13–18.
Chowdhury N, Ghosh A & Chandra G (2008) Mosquito larvicidal activities of Solanum villosum berry extract against the dengue vector Stegomyia aegypti. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine8: 1–8.
Chung I-M, Seo S-H, Kang E-Y, Park S-D, Park W-H & Moon H-I (2009) Chemical composition and larvicidal effects of essential oil of Dendropanax morbifera against Aedes aegypti L. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology37: 470–473.
Colón-González FJ, Sewe MO, Tompkins AM, Sjödin H, Casallas A et al. (2021) Projecting the risk of mosquito-borne diseases in a warmer and more populated world: a multi-model, multi-scenario intercomparison modelling study. Lancet Planetary Health5: e404–e414.
Conti B, Canale A, Bertoli A, Gozzini F & Pistelli L (2010) Essential oil composition and larvicidal activity of six Mediterranean aromatic plants against the mosquito Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research107: 1455–1461.
Coria-Téllez AV, Montalvo-Gónzalez E, Yahia EM & Obledo-Vázquez EN (2018) Annona muricata: a comprehensive review on its traditional medicinal uses, phytochemicals, pharmacological activities, mechanisms of action and toxicity. Arabian Journal of Chemistry11: 662–691.
Costa JGM, Pessoa ODL, Menezes EA, Santiago GMP & Lemos TLG (2004) Composition and larvicidal activity of essential oils from heartwood of Auxemma glazioviana Taub.(Boraginaceae). Flavour and Fragrance Journal19: 529–531.
Costa MS, Pinheiro DO, Serrão JE & Pereira MJB (2012) Morphological changes in the midgut of Aedes aegypti L.(Diptera: Culicidae) larvae following exposure to an Annona coriacea (Magnoliales: Annonaceae) extract. Neotropical Entomology41: 311–314.
Costa JGM, Rodrigues FFG, Angélico EC, Silva MR, Mota ML et al. (2005) Estudo químico-biológico dos óleos essenciais de Hyptis martiusii, Lippia sidoides e Syzigium aromaticum frente às larvas do Aedes aegypti. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia15: 304–309.
Costa JGM, Rodrigues FFG, Sousa EO, Junior DMS, Campos AR et al. (2010) Composition and larvicidal activity of the essential oils of Lantana camara and Lantana montevidensis. Chemistry of Natural Compounds46: 313–315.
Dantas da Cruz RC, da Silva Carvalho K, Oliveira Costa RJ, da Silva PA, da Cunha e Silva SL et al. (2020) Phytochemical and toxicological evaluation of a blend of essential oils of Croton species on Aedes aegypti and Mus musculus. South African Journal of Botany132: 188–195.
Dey P, Goyary D, Chattopadhyay P, Kishor S, Karmakar S & Verma A (2020) Evaluation of larvicidal activity of Piper longum leaf against the dengue vector, Aedes aegypti, malarial vector, Anopheles stephensi and filariasis vector, Culex quinquefasciatus. South African Journal of Botany132: 482–490.
Dikshit PK, Kumar J, Das AK, Sadhu S, Sharma S et al. (2021) Green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles: applications and limitations. Catalysts11: 902.
Domínguez-Martínez VG, Martínez-Vázquez M, Collar Gómez E, Atzin García J & Chimalpopoca FL (2003) Pupicidal activity of annonacin for Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae). Folia Entomologica Mexicana42: 349–358.
Dris D, Tine-Djebbar F, Bouabida H & Soltani N (2017) Chemical composition and activity of an Ocimum basilicum essential oil on Culex pipiens larvae: toxicological, biometrical and biochemical aspects. South African Journal of Botany113: 362–369.
Edwin E-S, Vasantha-Srinivasan P, Senthil-Nathan S, Thanigaivel A, Ponsankar A et al. (2016) Anti-dengue efficacy of bioactive andrographolide from Andrographis paniculata (Lamiales: Acanthaceae) against the primary dengue vector Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). Acta Tropica163: 167–178.
Elango G, Bagavan A, Kamaraj C, Zahir AA & Rahuman AA (2009) Oviposition-deterrent, ovicidal, and repellent activities of indigenous plant extracts against Anopheles subpictus Grassi (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research105: 1567–1576.
Elumalai K, Krishnappa K, Pandiyan J, Alharbi NS, Kadaikunnan S et al. (2022) Characterization of secondary metabolites from Lamiaceae plant leaf essential oil: a novel perspective to combat medical and agricultural pests. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology117: 101752.
Evergetis E, Michaelakis A, Kioulos E, Koliopoulos G & Haroutounian SA (2009) Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of essential oils from six Apiaceae family taxa against the West Nile virus vector Culex pipiens. Parasitology Research105: 117–124.
Falkowski M, Jahn-Oyac A, Odonne G, Flora C, Estevez Y et al. (2020) Towards the optimization of botanical insecticides research: Aedes aegypti larvicidal natural products in French Guiana. Acta Tropica201: 105179.
Fallatah SAB (2010) Histopathological effects of fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraceum) extracts on the larvae of the mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus. Journal of the Arab Society for Medical Research5: 123–130.
Fayemiwo KA, Adeleke MA, Okoro OP, Awojide SH & Awoniyi IO (2014) Larvicidal efficacies and chemical composition of essential oils of Pinus sylvestris and Syzygium aromaticum against mosquitoes. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine4: 30–34.
Feitosa EMA, Arriaga AMC, Lemos TLG, Lima JQ, Nunes e Vasconcelos J et al. (2007) Zanthoxylum articulatum Engler (Rutaceae) essential oil: chemical composition and larvicidal activity. Journal of Essential Oil Research19: 384–386.
Felix SF, Machado Rodrigues A, Moreira Rodrigues AL, Carnero de Freitas JC, Ribeiro Alves D et al. (2021) Chemical composition, larvicidal activity, and enzyme inhibition of the essential oil of Lippia grata Schauer from the Caatinga Biome against dengue vectors. Pharmaceuticals14: 250.
Foko LPK, Meva FE, Moukoko CEE, Ntoumba AA, Ekoko WE et al. (2021) Green-synthesized metal nanoparticles for mosquito control: a systematic review about their toxicity on non-target organisms. Acta Tropica214: 105792.
Ganesan P, Samuel R, Mutheeswaran S, Pandikumar P, Reegan AD et al. (2023) Phytocompounds for mosquito larvicidal activity and their modes of action: a review. South African Journal of Botany152: 19–49.
Gao G, Ze Y, Li B, Zhao X, Zhang T et al. (2012) Ovarian dysfunction and gene-expressed characteristics of female mice caused by long-term exposure to titanium dioxide nanoparticles. Journal of Hazardous Materials243: 19–27.
Gbolade AA & Lockwood GB (2008) Toxicity of Ocimum sanctum L. essential oil to Aedes aegypti larvae and its chemical composition. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants11: 148–153.
Gharsan FN (2019) A review of the bioactivity of plant products against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Entomological Science54: 256–274.
Ghosh A & Chandra G (2006) Biocontrol efficacy of Cestrum diurnum L. (Solanaceae: Solanales) against the larval forms of Anopheles stephensi. Natural Product Research20: 371–379.
Giatropoulos A, Kimbaris A, Michaelakis Α, Papachristos DP, Polissiou MG & Emmanouel N (2018) Chemical composition and assessment of larvicidal and repellent capacity of 14 Lamiaceae essential oils against Aedes albopictus. Parasitology Research117: 1953–1964.
Giatropoulos A, Pitarokili D, Papaioannou F, Papachristos DP, Koliopoulos G et al. (2013) Essential oil composition, adult repellency and larvicidal activity of eight Cupressaceae species from Greece against Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research112: 1113–1123.
Giorgi A, De Marinis P, Granelli G, Chiesa LM & Panseri S (2013) Secondary metabolite profile, antioxidant capacity, and mosquito repellent activity of Bixa orellana from Brazilian Amazon region. Journal of Chemistry1: 1–10.
Glenn JD, King JG & Hillyer JF (2010) Structural mechanics of the mosquito heart and its function in bidirectional hemolymph transport. Journal of Experimental Biology213: 541–550.
Glenn TC, Lance SL, McKee AM, Webster BL, Emery AM et al. (2013) Significant variance in genetic diversity among populations of Schistosoma haematobium detected using microsatellite DNA loci from a genome-wide database. Parasites and Vectors6: 1–12.
Govere J, Durrheim DN, Du Toit N, Hunt RH & Coetzee M (2000) Local plants as repellents against Anopheles arabiensis, in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. Central African Journal of Medicine46: 213–216.
Govindarajan M (2011) Evaluation of indigenous plant extracts against the malarial vector, Anopheles stephensi (Liston) (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research109: 93–103.
Govindarajan M & Benelli G (2016) Artemisia absinthium-borne compounds as novel larvicides: effectiveness against six mosquito vectors and acute toxicity on non-target aquatic organisms. Parasitology Research115: 4649–4661.
Govindarajan M, Rajeswary M, Arivoli S, Tennyson S & Benelli G (2016) Larvicidal and repellent potential of Zingiber nimmonii (J. Graham) Dalzell (Zingiberaceae) essential oil: an eco-friendly tool against malaria, dengue, and lymphatic filariasis mosquito vectors?Parasitology Research115: 1807–1816.
Govindarajan M, Rajeswary M & Benelli G (2016) Chemical composition, toxicity and non-target effects of Pinus kesiya essential oil: an eco-friendly and novel larvicide against malaria, dengue and lymphatic filariasis mosquito vectors. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety129: 85–90.
Govindarajan M, Rajeswary M, Hoti SL, Bhattacharyya A & Benelli G (2016) Eugenol, α-pinene and β-caryophyllene from Plectranthus barbatus essential oil as eco-friendly larvicides against malaria, dengue and Japanese encephalitis mosquito vectors. Parasitology Research115: 807–815.
Govindarajan M, Rajeswary M, Senthilmurugan S, Vijayan P, Alharbi NS et al. (2018) Larvicidal activity of the essential oil from Amomum subulatum Roxb.(Zingiberaceae) against Anopheles subpictus, Aedes albopictus and Culex tritaeniorhynchus (Diptera: Culicidae), and non-target impact on four mosquito natural enemies. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology101: 219–224.
Govindarajan M, Sivakumar R, Rajeswari M & Yogalakshmi K (2012) Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of essential oil from Mentha spicata (Linn.) against three mosquito species. Parasitology Research110: 2023–2032.
Govindarajan M, Sivakumar R, Rajeswary M & Veerakumar K (2013) Mosquito larvicidal activity of thymol from essential oil of Coleus aromaticus Benth. against Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Aedes albopictus, and Anopheles subpictus (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research112: 3713–3721.
Hajra A & Mondal NK (2015) Silver nanoparticles: an eco-friendly approach for mosquito control. International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences3: 47.
Hales S, De Wet N, Maindonald J & Woodward A (2002) Potential effect of population and climate changes on global distribution of dengue fever: an empirical model. The Lancet360: 830–834.
Hari I & Mathew N (2018) Larvicidal activity of selected plant extracts and their combination against the mosquito vectors Culex quinquefasciatus and Aedes aegypti. Environmental Science and Pollution Research25: 9176–9185.
Harrington LC, Scott TW, Lerdthusnee K, Coleman RC, Costero A et al. (2005) Dispersal of the dengue vector Aedes aegypti within and between rural communities. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene72: 209–220.
Heuskin S, Godin B, Leroy P, Capella Q, Wathelet J-P et al. (2009) Fast gas chromatography characterisation of purified semiochemicals from essential oils of Matricaria chamomilla L. (Asteraceae) and Nepeta cataria L. (Lamiaceae). Journal of Chromatography A1216: 2768–2775.
Hillary VE & Ceasar SA (2021) Genome engineering in insects for the control of vector borne diseases. Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science179: 197–223.
Hillary VE, Ceasar SA & Ignacimuthu S (2020) Genome engineering in insects: focus on the CRISPR/Cas9 system. Genome Engineering via CRISPR-Cas9 System (ed. by V Singh & PK Dhar), pp. 219–249. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Honório NA, da Costa Silva W, Leite PJ, Gonçalves JM, Lounibos LP & Lourenço-de-Oliveira R (2003) Dispersal of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) in an urban endemic dengue area in the State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz98: 191–198.
Ioset J-R, Marston A, Gupta MP & Hostettmann K (2000) Antifungal and larvicidal cordiaquinones from the roots of Cordia curassavica. Phytochemistry53: 613–617.
Isman MB, Miresmailli S & Machial C (2011) Commercial opportunities for pesticides based on plant essential oils in agriculture, industry and consumer products. Phytochemistry Reviews10: 197–204.
Jang Y-S, Baek B-R, Yang Y-C, Kim M-K & Lee H-S (2002) Larvicidal activity of leguminous seeds and grains against Aedes aegypti and Culex pipiens pallens. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association18: 210–213.
Jang Y-S, Jeon J-H & Lee H-S (2005) Mosquito larvicidal activity of active constituent derived from Chamaecyparis obtusa leaves against 3 mosquito species. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association21: 400–403.
Jantan I, Yalvema MF, Ahmad NW & Jamal JA (2005) Insecticidal activities of the leaf oils of eight Cinnamomum species against Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. Pharmaceutical Biology43: 526–532.
Jayanthi P, Lalitha P & Aarthi N (2012) Larvicidal and pupicidal activity of extracts and fractionates of Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms against the filarial vector Culex quinquefasciatus Say. Parasitology Research111: 2129–2135.
Jinu U, Rajakumaran S, Senthil-Nathan S, Geetha N & Venkatachalam P (2018) Potential larvicidal activity of silver nanohybrids synthesized using leaf extracts of Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex Hook. f. and Strychnos nux-vomica L. nux-vomica against dengue, Chikungunya and Zika vectors. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology101: 163–171.
Kabaru JM & Gichia L (2001) Insecticidal activity of extracts derived from different parts of the mangrove tree Rhizophora mucronata (Rhizophoraceae) Lam. against three arthropods. African journal of Science and Technology2: 44–49.
Kabir KE, Khan AR & Mosaddik MA (2003) Goniothalamin – a potent mosquito larvicide from Bryonopsis laciniosa L. Journal of Applied Entomology127: 112–115.
Kala S, Naik SN, Patanjali PK & Sogan N (2019) Neem oil water dispersible tablet as effective larvicide, ovicide and oviposition deterrent against Anopheles culicifacies. South African Journal of Botany123: 387–392.
Kalita B, Bora S & Sharma AK (2013) Plant essential oils as mosquito repellent-a review. International Journal of Research and Development in Pharmacy and Life Sciences3: 715–721.
Kalpana VN & Devi Rajeswari V (2018) A review on green synthesis, biomedical applications, and toxicity studies of ZnO NPs. Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications2018: 3569758.
Kamaraj C, Bagavan A, Elango G, Zahir AA, Rajakumar G et al. (2011) Larvicidal activity of medicinal plant extracts against Anopheles subpictus & Culex tritaeniorhynchus. Indian Journal of Medical Research134: 101.
Kamaraj C & Rahuman AA (2010) Larvicidal and adulticidal potential of medicinal plant extracts from south India against vectors. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine3: 948–953.
Kamaraj C, Rahuman AA, Mahapatra A, Bagavan A & Elango G (2010) Insecticidal and larvicidal activities of medicinal plant extracts against mosquitoes. Parasitology Research107: 1337–1349.
Kannathasan K, Senthilkumar A & Venkatesalu V (2011) Mosquito larvicidal activity of methyl-p-hydroxybenzoate isolated from the leaves of Vitex trifolia Linn. Acta Tropica120: 115–118.
Kaushik R & Saini P (2008) Larvicidal activity of leaf extract of Millingtonia hortensis (Family: Bignoniaceae) against Anopheles stephensi, Culex quinquefasciatus and Aedes aegypti. Journal of Vector Borne Diseases45: 66.
Kawada H, Ohashi K, Dida GO, Sonye G, Njenga SM et al. (2014) Insecticidal and repellent activities of pyrethroids to the three major pyrethroid-resistant malaria vectors in western Kenya. Parasites and Vectors7: 1–9.
Kazempour S, Shayeghi M, Abai MR, Vatandoost H & Pirmohammadi M (2021) Larvicidal activities of essential oils of indigenous medicinal plants, Mentha pulegium L., Satureja hortensis L., and Thymus vulgaris L. against malaria vector, Anopheles stephensi. South African Journal of Botany139: 38–41.
Khan HAA, Akram W & Lee S (2018) Resistance to selected pyrethroid insecticides in the malaria mosquito, Anopheles stephensi (Diptera: Culicidae), from Punjab, Pakistan. Journal of Medical Entomology55: 735–738.
Khatu NA, Haue ME & Mosaddik MA (2001) Laboratory evaluation of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn. flower extract and its isolated compound against common filarial vector, Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae. Pakistani Journal of Biosciences4: 585–587.
Kihampa C (2011) Tanzanian botanical derivatives in the control of malaria vectors: opportunities and challenges. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management15: 1.
Kim S-I & Ahn Y-J (2017) Larvicidal activity of lignans and alkaloid identified in Zanthoxylum piperitum bark toward insecticide-susceptible and wild Culex pipiens pallens and Aedes aegypti. Parasites and Vectors10: 1–10.
Kim Y-R, Park J-I, Lee EJ, Park SH, Seong N et al. (2014) Toxicity of 100 nm zinc oxide nanoparticles: a report of 90-day repeated oral administration in Sprague Dawley rats. International Journal of Nanomedicine9: 109–126.
Kimbaris AC, Koliopoulos G, Michaelakis A & Konstantopoulou MA (2012) Bioactivity of Dianthus caryophyllus, Lepidium sativum, Pimpinella anisum, and Illicium verum essential oils and their major components against the West Nile vector Culex pipiens. Parasitology Research111: 2403–2410.
Kiran SR, Bhavani K, Devi PS, Rao BRR & Reddy KJ (2006) Composition and larvicidal activity of leaves and stem essential oils of Chloroxylon swietenia DC against Aedes aegypti and Anopheles stephensi. Bioresource Technology97: 2481–2484.
Koc S, Oz E & Cetin H (2012) Repellent activities of some Labiatae plant essential oils against the saltmarsh mosquito Ochlerotatus caspius (Pallas, 1771) (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research110: 2205–2209.
Komalamisra N, Trongtokit Y, Rongsriyam Y & Apiwathnasorn C (2005) Screening for larvicidal activity in some Thai plants against four mosquito vector species. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health36: 1412.
Koodalingam A, Deepalakshmi R, Ammu M & Rajalakshmi A (2014) Effects of NeemAzal on marker enzymes and hemocyte phagocytic activity of larvae and pupae of the vector mosquito Aedes aegypti. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology17: 175–181.
Koodalingam A, Mullainadhan P & Arumugam M (2009) Antimosquito activity of aqueous kernel extract of soapnut Sapindus emarginatus: impact on various developmental stages of three vector mosquito species and nontarget aquatic insects. Parasitology Research105: 1425–1434.
Kosova J (2003) Longevity studies of Sindbis virus infected Aedes albopictus. University of Florida Digital Commons, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL, USA.
Kovendan K, Murugan K, Kumar PM, Thiyagarajan P & William SJ (2013) Ovicidal, repellent, adulticidal and field evaluations of plant extract against dengue, malaria and filarial vectors. Parasitology Research112: 1205–1219.
Kovendan K, Murugan K, Vincent S & Barnard DR (2012) Studies on larvicidal and pupicidal activity of Leucas aspera Willd. (Lamiaceae) and bacterial insecticide, Bacillus sphaericus, against malarial vector, Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research110: 195–203.
Kreft H & Jetz W (2007) Global patterns and determinants of vascular plant diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA104: 5925–5930.
Krishnappa K, Dhanasekaran S & Elumalai K (2012) Larvicidal, ovicidal and pupicidal activities of Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) (Leguminosae) against the malarial vector, Anopheles stephensi Liston (Culicidae: Diptera). Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine5: 598–604.
Kulkarni RR, Pawar PV, Joseph MP, Akulwad AK, Sen A & Joshi SP (2013) Lavandula gibsoni and Plectranthus mollis essential oils: chemical analysis and insect control activities against Aedes aegypti, Anopheles stephensi and Culex quinquefasciatus. Journal of Pest Science86: 713–718.
Lakshmi KV, Sudhikumar AV & Aneesh EM (2021) Synergistic effect of Croton bonplandianum Baill. with cypermethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin against Aedes aegypti Linn, a Dengue fever vector. South African Journal of Botany140: 103–109.
Lee SE (2000) Mosquito larvicidal activity of pipernonaline, a piperidine alkaloid derived from long pepper, Piper longum. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association-Mosquito News16: 245–247.
Lekamge S, Miranda AF, Abraham A, Li V, Shukla R et al. (2018) The toxicity of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) to three freshwater invertebrates with different life strategies: Hydra vulgaris, Daphnia carinata, and Paratya australiensis. Frontiers in Environmental Science6: 152.
Leyva M, del Carmen Marquetti M, Tacoronte JE, Scull R, Tiomno O et al. (2009) Actividad larvicida de aceites esenciales de plantas contra Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae). Revista Biomédica20: 5–13.
Leyva M, Tacoronte JE, Marquetti M del C, Scull R, Montada D et al. (2008) Actividad insecticida de aceites esenciales de plantas en larvas de Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). Revista Cubana de Medicina Tropical60: 5–13.
Li F, Gu Z, Wang B, Xie Y, Ma L et al. (2014) Effects of the biosynthesis and signaling pathway of ecdysterone on silkworm (Bombyx mori) following exposure to titanium dioxide nanoparticles. Journal of Chemical Ecology40: 913–922.
Lija-Escaline J, Senthil-Nathan S, Thanigaivel A, Pradeepa V, Vasantha-Srinivasan P et al. (2015) Physiological and biochemical effects of botanical extract from Piper nigrum Linn (Piperaceae) against the dengue vector Aedes aegypti Liston (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research114: 4239–4249.
Lima MAA, de Oliveira FFM, Gomes GA, Lavor PL, Santiago GMP et al. (2011) Evaluation of larvicidal activity of the essential oils of plants species from Brazil against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). African Journal of Biotechnology10: 11716–11720.
Liu XC, Dong HW, Zhou L, Du SS & Liu ZL (2013) Essential oil composition and larvicidal activity of Toddalia asiatica roots against the mosquito Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research112: 1197–1203.
Liu ZL, Liu QZ, Du SS & Deng ZW (2012) Mosquito larvicidal activity of alkaloids and limonoids derived from Evodia rutaecarpa unripe fruits against Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research111: 991–996.
Liu XC, Liu QY, Zhou L, Liu QR & Liu ZL (2014) Chemical composition of Zanthoxylum avicennae essential oil and its larvicidal activity on Aedes albopictus Skuse. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research13: 399–404.
Liu F, Wang Q, Xu P, Andreazza F, Valbon WR et al. (2021) A dual-target molecular mechanism of pyrethrum repellency against mosquitoes. Nature Communications12: 1–9.
Liu W, Yuan H, Yang J & Li B (2009) Characterization of bioflocculants from biologically aerated filter backwashed sludge and its application in dying wastewater treatment. Bioresource Technology100: 2629–2632.
Louis MRLM, Pushpa V, Balakrishna K & Ganesan P (2020) Mosquito larvicidal activity of avocado (Persea americana Mill.) unripe fruit peel methanolic extract against Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus and Anopheles stephensi. South African Journal of Botany133: 1–4.
Louis MR, Rani VP, Krishnan P, Reegan AD, Balakrishna K et al. (2022) Mosquito larvicidal activity of compounds from unripe fruit peel of avocado (Persea americana Mill.). Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology195: 1–12.
Lucia A, Audino PG, Seccacini E, Licastro S, Zerba E & Masuh H (2007) Larvicidal effect of Eucalyptus grandis essential oil and turpentine and their major components on Aedes aegypti larvae. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association23: 299–303.
Lucia A, Juan LW, Zerba EN, Harrand L, Marcó M & Masuh HM (2012) Validation of models to estimate the fumigant and larvicidal activity of Eucalyptus essential oils against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research110: 1675–1686.
Lucia A, Licastro S, Zerba E & Masuh H (2008) Yield, chemical composition, and bioactivity of essential oils from 12 species of Eucalyptus on Aedes aegypti larvae. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata129: 107–114.
Lupi E, Hatz C & Schlagenhauf P (2013) The efficacy of repellents against Aedes, Anopheles, Culex and Ixodes spp. – A literature review. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease11: 374–411.
Luz TRSA, de Mesquita LSS, do Amaral FMM & Coutinho DF (2020) Essential oils and their chemical constituents against Aedes aegypti L. (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae. Acta Tropica212: 105705.
Maheswaran R & Ignacimuthu S (2014) Effect of Polygonum hydropiper L. against dengue vector mosquito Aedes albopictus L. Parasitology Research113: 3143–3150.
Maniafu BM, Wilber L, Ndiege IO, Wanjala CC & Akenga TA (2009) Larvicidal activity of extracts from three Plumbago spp. against Anopheles gambiae. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz104: 813–817.
Manimaran A, Cruz MMJJ, Muthu C, Vincent S & Ignacimuthu S (2012) Larvicidal and knockdown effects of some essential oils against Culex quinquefasciatus Say, Aedes aegypti (L.) and Anopheles stephensi (Liston). Advances in Bioscience and Biotechnology3: 855–862.
Mansour SA, Messeha SS & El-Gengaihi SE (2000) Botanical biocides. 4. Mosquitocidal activity of certain Thymus capitatus constituents. Journal of Natural Toxins9: 49–62.
Mar JM, Silva LS, Azevedo SG, França LP, Goes AFF et al.(2018) Lippia origanoides essential oil: an efficient alternative to control Aedes aegypti, Tetranychus urticae and Cerataphis lataniae. Industrial Crops and Products111: 292–297.
Margni M, Rossier D, Crettaz P & Jolliet O (2002) Life cycle impact assessment of pesticides on human health and ecosystems. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment93: 379–392.
Marimuthu G, Rajamohan S, Mohan R & Krishnamoorthy Y (2012) Larvicidal and ovicidal properties of leaf and seed extracts of Delonix elata (L.) Gamble (Family: Fabaceae) against malaria (Anopheles stephensi Liston) and dengue (Aedes aegypti Linn.) (Diptera: Culicidae) vector mosquitoes. Parasitology Research111: 65–77.
De Marinis P (2013) Secondary metabolite profile, antioxidant capacity, and mosquito repellent activity of Bixa orellana from Brazil. Journal of Chemistry2013: 409826.
Marques DM, de Freitas Rocha J, de Almeida TS & Mota EF (2021) Essential oils of caatinga plants with deletary action for Aedes aegypti: a review. South African Journal of Botany143: 69–78.
Marques MMM, Morais SM, Vieira ÍGP, Vieira MGS, Silva ARA et al. (2011) Larvicidal activity of Tagetes erecta against Aedes aegypti. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association27: 156–158.
Massebo F, Tadesse M, Bekele T, Balkew M & Gebre-Michael T (2009) Evaluation on larvicidal effects of essential oils of some local plants against Anopheles arabiensis Patton and Aedes aegypti Linnaeus (Diptera, Culicidae) in Ethiopia. African Journal of Biotechnology8: 4183–4188.
Maurya P, Sharma P, Mohan L, Batabyal L & Srivastava CN (2009) Evaluation of the toxicity of different phytoextracts of Ocimum basilicum against Anopheles stephensi and Culex quinquefasciatus. Joural of Asia Pacific Entomology12: 113–115.
Mavundza EJ, Maharaj R, Chukwujekwu JC, Finnie JF & Van Staden J (2013) Larvicidal activity against Anopheles arabiensis of 10 South African plants that are traditionally used as mosquito repellents. South African Journal of Botany88: 86–89.
de Melo AR, Garcia IJP, Serrão JE, Santos HL, dos Santos Lima LAR & Alves SN (2018) Toxicity of different fatty acids and methyl esters on Culex quinquefasciatus larvae. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety154: 1–5.
Michaelakis A, Papachristos D, Kimbaris A, Koliopoulos G, Giatropoulos A & Polissiou MG (2009) Citrus essential oils and four enantiomeric pinenes against Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research105: 769–773.
Mohammed A & Chadee DD (2007) An evaluation of some Trinidadian plant extracts against larvae of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association23: 172–176.
Mohan L, Sharma P & Srivastava CN (2006) Evaluation of Solanum xanthocarpum extract as a synergist for cypermethrin against larvae of the filarial vector Culex quinquefasciatus (Say). Entomological Research36: 220–225.
Monisha D, Sivasankar V, Mylsamy P & Paulraj MG (2020) Mosquito larvicidal activity of Enhalus acoroides (Lf) Royle and Halophila ovalis (R. Br) Hook. f. against the deadly vectors Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus. South African Journal of Botany133: 63–72.
Morais SM, Cavalcanti ESB, Bertini LM, Oliveira CLL, Rodrigues JRB & Cardoso JHL (2006) Larvicidal activity of essential oils from Brazilian Croton species against Aedes aegypti L. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association22: 161–164.
de Morais SM, Facundo VA, Bertini LM, Cavalcanti ESB, dos Anjos Júnior JF et al. (2007) Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of essential oils from Piper species. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology35: 670–675.
Mordecai EA, Ryan SJ, Caldwell JM, Shah MM & LaBeaud AD (2020) Climate change could shift disease burden from malaria to arboviruses in Africa. The Lancet Planetary Health4: e416–e423.
Mozaffari E, Abai MR, Khanavi M, Vatandoost H, Sedaghat MM et al. (2014) Chemical composition, larvicidal and repellency properties of Cionura erecta (L.) Griseb. against malaria vector, Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Arthropod-borne Diseases8: 147.
Muema JM, Bargul JL, Njeru SN, Onyango JO & Imbahale SS (2017) Prospects for malaria control through manipulation of mosquito larval habitats and olfactory-mediated behavioural responses using plant-derived compounds. Parasites and Vectors10: 1–18.
Muench J, Jarvis K, Gray M, Hayes M, Vandersloot D et al. (2015) Implementing a team-based SBIRT model in primary care clinics. Journal of Substance Use20: 106–112.
Mukandiwa L, Eloff JN & Naidoo V (2015) Larvicidal activity of leaf extracts and seselin from Clausena anisata (Rutaceae) against Aedes aegypti. South African Journal of Botany100: 169–173.
Munda S, Saikia P & Lal M (2018) Chemical composition and biological activity of essential oil of Kaempferia galanga: a review. Journal of Essential Oil Research30: 303–308.
Murthy JM & Rani PU (2009) Biological activity of certain botanical extracts as larvicides against the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti L. Journal of Biopesticides2: 72–76.
Murugan JM, Ramkumar G & Shivakumar MS (2016) Insecticidal potential of Ocimum canum plant extracts against Anopheles stephensi, Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus larval and adult mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). Natural Product Research30: 1193–1196.
Murugan K, Roni M, Panneerselvam C, Suresh U, Rajaganesh R et al. (2018) Sargassum wightii-synthesized ZnO nanoparticles reduce the fitness and reproduction of the malaria vector Anopheles stephensi and cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology101: 202–213.
Nacher M, Carrara VI, Ashley E, McGready R, Hutagalung R et al. (2004) Seasonal variation in hyperparasitaemia and gametocyte carriage in patients with Plasmodium falciparum malaria on the Thai–Burmese border. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene98: 322–328.
Nagella P, Ahmad A, Kim S-J & Chung I-M (2012) Chemical composition, antioxidant activity and larvicidal effects of essential oil from leaves of Apium graveolens. Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology34: 205–209.
do Nascimento JC, David JM, Barbosa LCA, de Paula VF, Demuner AJ et al. (2013) Larvicidal activities and chemical composition of essential oils from Piper klotzschianum (Kunth) C. DC. (Piperaceae). Pest Management Science69: 1267–1271.
Nathan SS, Hisham A & Jayakumar G (2008) Larvicidal and growth inhibition of the malaria vector Anopheles stephensi by triterpenes from Dysoxylum malabaricum and Dysoxylum beddomei. Fitoterapia79: 106–111.
Nathan SS, Kalaivani K & Chung PG (2005) The effects of azadirachtin and nucleopolyhedrovirus on midgut enzymatic profile of Spodoptera litura Fab. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology83: 46–57.
Ndung'u MW, Kaoneka B, Hassanali A, Lwande W, Hooper AM et al. (2004) New mosquito larvicidal tetranortriterpenoids from Turraea wakefieldii and Turraea floribunda. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry52: 5027–5031.
Nikkon F, Salam KA, Yeasmin T, Mosaddik A, Khondkar P & Haque ME (2010) Mosquitocidal triterpenes from the stem of Duranta repens. Pharmaceutical Biology48: 264–268.
Noronha M, Pawar V, Prajapati A & Subramanian RB (2020) A literature review on traditional herbal medicines for malaria. South African Journal of Botany128: 292–303.
Nyahanga T, Jondika JI, Manguro LOA & Orwa JA (2010) Chemical composition, antiplasmodial, larvicidal and antimicrobial activities of essential oils of Toddalia asiatica leaves and fruits. International Journal of Essential Oil Therapeutics4: 54–58.
Ohia CMD & Ana G (2015) Bio-insecticides: the one-health response to mosquito-borne diseases of public health importance. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare5: 22–26.
de Oliveira AA, França LP, Ramos A de S, Ferreira JLP, Maria ACB et al. (2021) Larvicidal, adulticidal and repellent activities against Aedes aegypti L. of two commonly used spices, Origanum vulgare L. and Thymus vulgaris L. South African Journal of Botany140: 17–24.
De Omena MC, Navarro D, De Paula JE, Luna JS, De Lima MRF & Sant'Ana AEG (2007) Larvicidal activities against Aedes aegypti of some Brazilian medicinal plants. Bioresource Technology98: 2549–2556.
Pandey RK & Prajapati VK (2018) Molecular and immunological toxic effects of nanoparticles. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules107: 1278–1293.
Pandey SK, Upadhyay S & Tripathi AK (2009) Insecticidal and repellent activities of thymol from the essential oil of Trachyspermum ammi (Linn) Sprague seeds against Anopheles stephensi. Parasitology Research105: 507–512.
Panneerselvam C & Murugan K (2013) Adulticidal, repellent, and ovicidal properties of indigenous plant extracts against the malarial vector, Anopheles stephensi (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research112: 679–692.
Pant M, Dubey S, Raza SK & Patanjali PK (2012) Encapsulation of neem and karanja oil mixture for synergistic as well as larvicidal activity for mosquito control. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research71: 348–352.
Park H-M, Kim J, Chang K-S, Kim B-S, Yang Y-J et al. (2011) Larvicidal activity of Myrtaceae essential oils and their components against Aedes aegypti, acute toxicity on Daphnia magna, and aqueous residue. Journal of Medical Entomology48: 405–410.
Park I-K, Lee S-G, Shin S-C, Park J-D & Ahn Y-J (2002) Larvicidal activity of isobutylamides identified in Piper nigrum fruits against three mosquito species. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry50: 1866–1870.
Patrakar R, Mansuriya M & Patil P (2012) Phytochemical and pharmacological review on Laurus nobilis. International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Chemical Sciences1: 595–602.
Pavela R (2009) Larvicidal property of essential oils against Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae). Industrial Crops and Products30: 311–315.
Pavela R (2016) History, presence and perspective of using plant extracts as commercial botanical insecticides and farm products for protection against insects – a review. Plant Protection Science52: 229–241.
Pavela R & Govindarajan M (2017) The essential oil from Zanthoxylum monophyllum a potential mosquito larvicide with low toxicity to the non-target fish Gambusia affinis. Journal of Pest Science90: 369–378.
Pavela R, Kaffkova K & Kumšta M (2014) Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of essential oils from different Mentha L. and Pulegium species against Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae). Plant Protection Science50: 36–41.
Pavela R, Maggi F, Iannarelli R & Benelli G (2019) Plant extracts for developing mosquito larvicides: from laboratory to the field, with insights on the modes of action. Acta Tropica193: 236–271.
Pavela R, Maggi F, Kamte SLN, Rakotosaona R, Rasoanaivo P et al. (2017) Chemical composition of Cinnamosma madagascariensis (Cannelaceae) essential oil and its larvicidal potential against the filariasis vector Culex quinquefasciatus Say. South African Journal of Botany108: 359–363.
Pereira ÁIS, da Pereira AGS, Lopes Sobrinho OP, de Pereira Cantanhede EK & Siqueira LFS (2014) Antimicrobial activity in fighting mosquito larvae Aedes aegypti: Homogenization of essential oils of linalool and eugenol. Educación Química25: 446–449.
Perumalsamy H, Kim N-J & Ahn Y-J (2009) Larvicidal activity of compounds isolated from Asarum heterotropoides against Culex pipiens pallens, Aedes aegypti, and Ochlerotatus togoi (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Medical Entomology46: 1420–1423.
Phasomkusolsil S & Soonwera M (2010) Insect repellent activity of medicinal plant oils against Aedes aegypti (Linn.), Anopheles minimus (Theobald) and Culex quinquefasciatus Say based on protection time and biting rate. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health41: 831.
Pilaquinga F, Morejón B, Ganchala D, Morey J, Piña N et al. (2019) Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Solanum mammosum L. (Solanaceae) fruit extract and their larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti L. (Diptera: Culicidae). PLoS One14: e0224109.
Pitarokili D, Michaelakis A, Koliopoulos G, Giatropoulos A & Tzakou O (2011) Chemical composition, larvicidal evaluation, and adult repellency of endemic Greek Thymus essential oils against the mosquito vector of West Nile virus. Parasitology Research109: 425–430.
Pradeepa V, Sathish-Narayanan S, Kirubakaran SA & Senthil-Nathan S (2014) Antimalarial efficacy of dynamic compound of plumbagin chemical constituent from Plumbago zeylanica Linn (Plumbaginaceae) against the malarial vector Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research113: 3105–3109.
Pradeepa V, Sathish-Narayanan S, Kirubakaran SA, Thanigaivel A & Senthil-Nathan S (2015) Toxicity of aristolochic acids isolated from Aristolochia indica Linn (Aristolochiaceae) against the malarial vector Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae). Experimental Parasitology153: 8–16.
Pradeepa V, Senthil-Nathan S, Sathish-Narayanan S, Selin-Rani S, Vasantha-Srinivasan P et al. (2016) Potential mode of action of a novel plumbagin as a mosquito repellent against the malarial vector Anopheles stephensi (Culicidae: Diptera). Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology134: 84–93.
Prajapati V, Tripathi AK, Aggarwal KK & Khanuja SPS (2005) Insecticidal, repellent and oviposition-deterrent activity of selected essential oils against Anopheles stephensi, Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus. Bioresource Technology96: 1749–1757.
Prathibha KP, Raghavendra BS & Vijayan VA (2014) Larvicidal, ovicidal, and oviposition-deterrent activities of four plant extracts against three mosquito species. Environmental Science and Pollution Research21: 6736–6743.
Priya S & Santhi S (2014) A review on nanoparticles in mosquito control – a green revolution in future. International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology2: 378–387.
Promsiri S, Naksathit A, Kruatrachue M & Thavara U (2006) Evaluations of larvicidal activity of medicinal plant extracts to Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) and other effects on a non target fish. Insect Science13: 179–188.
Pushpanathan T, Jebanesan A & Govindarajan M (2008) The essential oil of Zingiber officinalis Linn (Zingiberaceae) as a mosquito larvicidal and repellent agent against the filarial vector Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research102: 1289–1291.
Raghavendra K, Singh SP, Subbarao SK & Dash AP (2009) Laboratory studies on mosquito larvicidal efficacy of aqueous & hexane extracts of dried fruit of Solanum nigrum Linn. Indian Journal of Medical Research130: 74.
Rahuman AA, Bagavan A, Kamaraj C, Vadivelu M, Zahir AA et al. (2009) Evaluation of indigenous plant extracts against larvae of Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research104: 637–643.
Rahuman AA, Gopalakrishnan G, Venkatesan P & Geetha K (2008a) Larvicidal activity of some Euphorbiaceae plant extracts against Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research102: 867–873.
Rahuman AA & Venkatesan P (2008) Larvicidal efficacy of five cucurbitaceous plant leaf extracts against mosquito species. Parasitology Research103: 133–139.
Rahuman AA, Venkatesan P & Gopalakrishnan G (2008b) Mosquito larvicidal activity of oleic and linoleic acids isolated from Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrad. Parasitology Research103: 1383–1390.
Rajakumar G, Marimuthu S & Santhoshkumar T (2010) Larvicidal efficacy of medicinal plant extracts against Anopheles stephensi and Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae). Tropical Biomedicine27: 211–219.
Rajasekaran A & Duraikannan G (2012) Larvicidal activity of plant extracts on Aedes aegypti L. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine2: S1578–S1582.
Rajkumar S & Jebanesan A (2005) Larvicidal and adult emergence inhibition effect of Centella asiatica Brahmi (Umbelliferae) against mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae). African Journal of Biomedical Research8: 31–33.
Rajkumar S & Jebanesan A (2008) Bioactivity of flavonoid compounds from Poncirus trifoliata L. (Family: Rutaceae) against the dengue vector, Aedes aegypti L. (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research104: 19–25.
Rajkumar S & Jebanesan A (2009) Larvicidal and oviposition activity of Cassia obtusifolia Linn (Family: Leguminosae) leaf extract against malarial vector, Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research104: 337–340.
Ramkumar G, Karthi S, Muthusamy R, Natarajan D & Shivakumar MS (2015) Insecticidal and repellent activity of Clausena dentata (Rutaceae) plant extracts against Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research114: 1139–1144.
Ramkumar G, Karthi S, Muthusamy R, Suganya P, Natarajan D et al. (2016) Mosquitocidal effect of Glycosmis pentaphylla leaf extracts against three mosquito species (Diptera: Culicidae). PLoS One11: e0158088.
Ranson H & Lissenden N (2016) Insecticide resistance in African Anopheles mosquitoes: a worsening situation that needs urgent action to maintain malaria control. Trends in Parasitology32: 187–196.
Rathy MC, Sajith U & Harilal CC (2015) Larvicidal efficacy of medicinal plant extracts against the vector mosquito Aedes albopictus. International Journal of Mosquito Research2: 80–82.
Rawani A, Ghosh A & Chandra G (2010) Mosquito larvicidal activities of Solanum nigrum L. leaf extract against Culex quinquefasciatus Say. Parasitology Research107: 1235–1240.
Reegan AD, Gandhi MR, Paulraj MG & Ignacimuthu S (2015) Ovicidal and oviposition deterrent activities of medicinal plant extracts against Aedes aegypti L. and Culex quinquefasciatus Say mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). Osong Public Health and Research Perspectives6: 64–69.
Remia KM, Logaswamy S & Shanmugapriyan R (2017) Efficacy of botanical repellents against Aedes aegypti. International Journal of Mosquito Research4: 126–129.
Richards SL, Byrd BD, Reiskind MH & White AV (2020) Assessing insecticide resistance in adult mosquitoes: perspectives on current methods. Environmental Health Insights14: 1178630220952790.
Rico F, Oshima A, Hinterdorfer P, Fujiyoshi Y & Scheuring S (2011) Two-dimensional kinetics of inter-connexin interactions from single-molecule force spectroscopy. Journal of Molecular Biology412: 72–79.
Rodrigues AMS, De Paula JE, Dégallier N, Molez J-F & Espíndola LS (2006) Larvicidal activity of some Cerrado plant extracts against Aedes aegypti. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association22: 314–317.
Rodrigues AMS, De Paula JE, Roblot F, Fournet A & Espíndola LS (2005) Larvicidal activity of Cybistax antisyphilitica against Aedes aegypti larvae. Fitoterapia76: 755–757.
Rohani A, Nazni WA, Ngo LV, Ibrahim J & Lee HL (1997) Adulticidal properties of the essential extracts of some Malaysian plants on vector mosquitoes. Tropical Biomedicine14: 5–10.
Ruiz C, Cachay M, Domínguez M, Velásquez C, Espinoza G et al. (2011) Chemical composition, antioxidant and mosquito larvicidal activities of essential oils from Tagetes filifolia, Tagetes minuta and Tagetes elliptica from Perú. Planta Medica77: PE30.
Sakhanokho HF, Sampson BJ, Tabanca N, Wedge DE, Demirci B et al. (2013) Chemical composition, antifungal and insecticidal activities of Hedychium essential oils. Molecules18: 4308–4327.
Sakthivadivel M & Daniel T (2008) Evaluation of certain insecticidal plants for the control of vector mosquitoes viz. Culex quinquefasciatus, Anopheles stephensi and Aedes aegypti. Applied Entomology and Zoology43: 57–63.
Santiago GMP, Lemos TLG, Pessoa ODL, Arriaga ÂMC, Matos FJA et al. (2006) Larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti L. (Diptera: Culicidae) of essential oils of Lippia species from Brazil. Natural Product Communications1: 1934578X0600100711.
Santos GKN, Dutra KA, Barros RA, da Câmara CAG, Lira DD et al. (2012) Essential oils from Alpinia purpurata (Zingiberaceae): chemical composition, oviposition deterrence, larvicidal and antibacterial activity. Industrial Crops and Products40: 254–260.
Santos LMM, Nascimento JS, Santos MAG, Marriel NB, Bezerra-Silva PC et al. (2017) Fatty acid-rich volatile oil from Syagrus coronata seeds has larvicidal and oviposition-deterrent activities against Aedes aegypti. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology100: 35–40.
Santos RP, Nunes EP, Nascimento RF, Santiago GMP, Menezes GHA et al. (2006) Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of the essential oils of Cordia leucomalloides and Cordia curassavica from the Northeast of Brazil. Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society17: 1027–1030.
Schleier III JJ & Peterson RKD (2011) Pyrethrins and pyrethroid insecticides. Green Trends in Insect Control (ed. by O Lopez & J Fernandez-Bolanos), pp. 94–131. RSC Publishing, Cambridge, UK.
Sedaghat MM, Dehkordi AS, Khanavi M, Abai MR, Mohtarami F & Vatandoost H (2011) Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of essential oil of Cupressus arizonica EL Greene against malaria vector Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae). Pharmacognosy Research3: 135.
Selvan PS, Senthoorraja R, Ramesh V & Jebanesan A (2021) Field evaluation of toxicity of plant extracts against vector of filariasis Culex quinquefasciatus Say, 1823 (Diptera: Culicidae). South African Journal of Botany139: 58–66.
Semmler-Behnke M, Lipka J, Wenk A, Hirn S, Schäffler M et al. (2014) Size dependent translocation and fetal accumulation of gold nanoparticles from maternal blood in the rat. Particle and Fibre Toxicology11: 1–12.
Senthil-Nathan S (2020) A review of resistance mechanisms of synthetic insecticides and botanicals, phytochemicals, and essential oils as alternative larvicidal agents against mosquitoes. Frontiers in Physiology10: 1591.
Senthil-Nathan S, Choi M-Y, Paik C-H, Seo H-Y & Kalaivani K (2009) Toxicity and physiological effects of neem pesticides applied to rice on the Nilaparvata lugens Stål, the brown planthopper. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety72: 1707–1713.
Senthilkumar A, Jayaraman M & Venkatesalu V (2013) Chemical constituents and larvicidal potential of Feronia limonia leaf essential oil against Anopheles stephensi, Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus. Parasitology Research112: 1337–1342.
Senthilkumar A, Kannathasan K & Venkatesalu V (2008) Chemical constituents and larvicidal property of the essential oil of Blumea mollis (D. Don) Merr. against Culex quinquefasciatus. Parasitology Research103: 959–962.
Senthilkumar N, Varma P & Gurusubramanian G (2009) Larvicidal and adulticidal activities of some medicinal plants against the malarial vector, Anopheles stephensi (Liston). Parasitology Research104: 237–244.
Seo S-M, Jung C-S, Kang J, Lee H-R, Kim S-W et al. (2015) Larvicidal and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activities of Apiaceae plant essential oils and their constituents against Aedes albopictus and formulation development. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry63: 9977–9986.
Shunying Z, Yang Y, Huaidong Y, Yue Y & Guolin Z (2005) Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of Chrysanthemum indicum. Journal of Ethnopharmacology96: 151–158.
Siddiqui BS, Afshan F, Afshan F, Ghiasuddin SF, Naqvi SN-H et al. (1999) New insect-growth-regulator meliacin butenolides from the leaves of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions1: 2367–2370.
Siddiqui BS, Afshan F, Faizi S, Naeem-ul-Hassan Naqvi S & Tariq RM (2002) Two new triterpenoids from Azadirachta indica and their insecticidal activity. Journal of Natural Products65: 1216–1218.
Siddiqui BS, Afshan F, Gulzar T, Sultana R, Naqvi SN-H & Tariq RM (2003) Tetracyclic triterpenoids from the leaves of Azadirachta indica and their insecticidal activities. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin51: 415–417.
Siegwart M, Graillot B, Blachere Lopez C, Besse S, Bardin M et al. (2015) Resistance to bio-insecticides or how to enhance their sustainability: a review. Frontiers in Plant Science6: 381.
Silva RL, Mello TRB, Sousa JPB, Albernaz LC, Magalhães NMG et al. (2022) Brazilian Cerrado biome essential oils to control the arbovirus vectors Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus. Industrial Crops and Products178: 114568.
Singh J, Dutta T, Kim K-H, Rawat M, Samddar P & Kumar P (2018) ‘Green’ synthesis of metals and their oxide nanoparticles: applications for environmental remediation. Journal of Nanobiotechnology16: 1–24.
Sivagnaname N & Kalyanasundaram M (2004) Laboratory evaluation of methanolic extract of Atlantia monophylla (Family: Rutaceae) against immature stages of mosquitoes and non-target organisms. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz99: 115–118.
Sogan N, Kala S, Kapoor N & Nagpal BN (2021) Phytochemical analysis of Spergula arvensis and evaluation of its larvicidal activity against malarial vector An. culicfiacies. South African Journal of Botany137: 351–358.
Soonwera M (2015a) Efficacy of essential oils from Citrus plants against mosquito vectors Aedes aegypti (Linn.) and Culex quinquefasciatus (Say). Journal of Agricultural Technology11: 669–681.
Soonwera M (2015b) Efficacy of essential oil from Cananga odorata (Lamk.) Hook. f. & Thomson (Annonaceae) against three mosquito species Aedes aegypti (L.), Anopheles dirus (Peyton and Harrison), and Culex quinquefasciatus (Say). Parasitology Research114: 4531–4543.
Souza LG da S, Almeida MCS, Monte FJQ, Santiago GMP, Braz-Filho R et al. (2012) Chemical constituents of Capraria biflora (Scrophulariaceae) and larvicidal activity of essential oil. Química Nova35: 2258–2262.
De Souza MA, Da Silva L, Macêdo MJF, Lacerda-Neto LJ, dos Santos MAC et al. (2019) Adulticide and repellent activity of essential oils against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae)–A review. South African Journal of Botany124: 160–165.
de Souza Wuillda ACJ, Campos Martins RC & das Neves Costa F (2019) Larvicidal activity of secondary plant metabolites in Aedes aegypti control: an overview of the previous 6 years. Natural Product Communications14: 1934578X19862893.
Sritabutra D, Soonwera M, Waltanachanobon S & Poungjai S (2011) Evaluation of herbal essential oil as repellents against Aedes aegypti (L.) and Anopheles dirus Peyton & Harrion. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine1: S124–S128.
Sukhthankar JH, Kumar H, Godinho MHS & Kumar A (2014) Larvicidal activity of methanolic leaf extracts of plant, Chromolaena odorata L. (Asteraceae) against vector mosquitoes. International Journal of Mosquito Research1: 33–38.
Sukumar K, Perich MJ & Boobar LR (1991) Botanical derivatives in mosquito control: a review. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association7: 210–237.
Sulaiman S, Kadir AA, Pawanchee ZA, Othman HF, Shaari N et al. (2001) Field evaluation of the control efficacy of plant extracts applied by ULV spraying at high-rise flats to control dengue vectors. Arbovirus Research in Australia8: 375–378.
Sumroiphon S, Yuwaree C, Arunlertaree C, Komalamisra N & Rongsriyam Y (2006) Bioactivity of citrus seed for mosquito-borne diseases larval control. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health37: 123–127.
Sun R, Sacalis JN, Chin C-K & Still CC (2001) Bioactive aromatic compounds from leaves and stems of Vanilla fragrans. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry49: 5161–5164.
Sutthanont N, Choochote W, Tuetun B, Junkum A, Jitpakdi A et al. (2010) Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of edible plant-derived essential oils against the pyrethroid-susceptible and-resistant strains of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Vector Ecology35: 106–115.
Tabanca N, Özek G, Ali A, Duran A, Hamzaoğlu E et al. (2012) Chemical composition of Heracleum pastinacifolium subsp. transcaucasicum and subsp. incanum essential oils, and their biting deterrent and larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti. Planta Medica78: 89.
Tavares Trindade FTT, Guerino Stabeli RG, Almeira Pereira A, Alves Facundo V & de Almeida e Silva A (2013) Copaifera multijuga ethanolic extracts, oilresin, and its derivatives display larvicidal activity against Anopheles darlingi and Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia23: 464–470.
Tehri K & Singh N (2015) The role of botanicals as green pesticides in integrated mosquito management – A review. International Journal of Mosquito Research2: 18–23.
Tennyson S, Ravindran KJ & Arivoli S (2012) Screening of twenty five plant extracts for larvicidal activity against Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae). Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine2: S1130–S1134.
Thanigaivel A, Senthil-Nathan S, Vasantha-Srinivasan P, Edwin E, Ponsankar A et al. (2017) Chemicals isolated from Justicia adhatoda Linn reduce fitness of the mosquito, Aedes aegypti L. Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology94: e21384.
Thanigaivel A, Vasantha-Srinivasan P, Edwin E-S, Ponsankar A, Selin-Rani S et al. (2018) Development of an eco-friendly mosquitocidal agent from Alangium salvifolium against the dengue vector Aedes aegypti and its biosafety on the aquatic predator. Environmental Science and Pollution Research25: 10340–10352.
Thiyagarajan P, Kumar PM, Kovendan K & Murugan K (2014) Effect of medicinal plant and microbial insecticides for the sustainable mosquito vector control. Acta Biological Indica3: 527–535.
Tiwary M, Naik SN, Tewary DK, Mittal PK & Yadav S (2007) Chemical composition and larvicidal activities of the essential oil of Zanthoxylum armatum DC (Rutaceae) against three mosquito vectors. Journal of Vector Borne Diseases44: 198.
Torres MCM, Assunção JC, Santiago GMP, Andrade-Neto M, Silveira ER et al. (2008) Larvicidal and nematicidal activities of the leaf essential oil of Croton regelianus. Chemistry and Biodiversity5: 2724–2728.
Traboulsi AF, Taoubi K, El-Haj S, Bessiere JM & Rammal S (2002) Insecticidal properties of essential plant oils against the mosquito Culex pipiens molestus (Diptera: Culicidae). Pest Management Science58: 491–495.
Tripathi AK, Upadhyay S, Bhuiyan M & Bhattacharya PR (2009) A review on prospects of essential oils as biopesticide in insect-pest management. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy1: 52–63.
Trongtokit Y, Rongsriyam Y, Komalamisra N & Apiwathnasorn C (2005) Comparative repellency of 38 essential oils against mosquito bites. Phytotherapy Research19: 303–309.
Ullah Z, Ijaz A, Mughal TK & Zia K (2018) Larvicidal activity of medicinal plant extracts against Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Culicidae, Diptera). International Journal of Mosquito Research5: 47–51.
Vahitha R, Venkatachalam MR, Murugan K & Jebanesan A (2002) Larvicidal efficacy of Pavonia zeylanica L. and Acacia ferruginea DC against Culex quinquefasciatus Say. Bioresource Technology82: 203–204.
Vasantha-Srinivasan P, Thanigaivel A, Edwin E-S, Ponsankar A, Senthil-Nathan S et al. (2018) Toxicological effects of chemical constituents from Piper against the environmental burden Aedes aegypti Liston and their impact on non-target toxicity evaluation against biomonitoring aquatic insects. Environmental Science and Pollution Research25: 10434–10446.
Vera SS, Zambrano DF, Méndez-Sanchez SC, Rodríguez-Sanabria F, Stashenko EE & Luna JED (2014) Essential oils with insecticidal activity against larvae of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research113: 2647–2654.
Veronesi R, Gentile G, Carrieri M, Maccagnani B, Stermieri L & Bellini R (2012) Seasonal pattern of daily activity of Aedes caspius, Aedes detritus, Culex modestus, and Culex pipiens in the Po Delta of northern Italy and significance for vector-borne disease risk assessment. Journal of Vector Ecology37: 49–61.
Vicario-Parés U, Castañaga L, Lacave JM, Oron M, Reip P et al. (2014) Comparative toxicity of metal oxide nanoparticles (CuO, ZnO and TiO2) to developing zebrafish embryos. Journal of Nanoparticle Research16: 1–16.
Wahyuni D (2012) Larvicidal activity of essential oils of Piper betle from the Indonesian plants against Aedes aegypti L. Journal of Applied Environmental Biological Science2: 249–254.
Wilson AL, Courtenay O, Kelly-Hope LA, Scott TW, Takken W et al. (2020) The importance of vector control for the control and elimination of vector-borne diseases. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases14: e0007831.
WHO (World Health Organization) (2017) Global Diffusion of eHealth: Making Universal Health Coverage Achievable: Report of the third Global Survey on eHealth. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.
WHO (World Health Organization) (2022c) Laboratory Testing for Zika Virus and Dengue Virus Infections: Interim Guidance, 14 July 2022. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.
Yadav R, Srivastava VK, Chandra R & Singh A (2002) Larvicidal activity of latex and stem bark of Euphorbia tirucalli plant on the mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus. Journal of Communicable Diseases34: 264–269.
Yang Y-C, Lim M-Y & Lee H-S (2003) Emodin isolated from Cassia obtusifolia (Leguminosae) seed shows larvicidal activity against three mosquito species. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry51: 7629–7631.
Yang T, Lu L, Fu G, Zhong S, Ding G et al. (2009) Epidemiology and vector efficiency during a dengue fever outbreak in Cixi, Zhejiang Province, China. Journal of Vector Ecology34: 148–154.
Yenesew A, Derese S, Midiwo JO, Heydenreich M & Peter MG (2003) Effect of rotenoids from the seeds of Millettia dura on larvae of Aedes aegypti. Pest Management Science59: 1159–1161.
Zahir AA, Rahuman AA, Kamaraj C, Bagavan A, Elango G et al. (2009) Laboratory determination of efficacy of indigenous plant extracts for parasites control. Parasitology Research105: 453–461.
Zhang J, Huang T, Zhang J, Shi Z & He Z (2018) Chemical composition of leaf essential oils of four Cinnamomum species and their larvicidal activity against Anopheles sinensis (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants21: 1284–1294.
Zhang X-F, Liu Z-G, Shen W & Gurunathan S (2016) Silver nanoparticles: synthesis, characterization, properties, applications, and therapeutic approaches. International Journal of Molecular Sciences17: 1534.
Zhu L & Tian Y (2011) Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of Blumea densiflora essential oils against Anopheles anthropophagus: a malarial vector mosquito. Parasitology Research109: 1417–1422.
Zhu J & Zeng X (2006) Adult repellency and larvicidal activity of five plant essential oils against mosquitoes. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association22: 515–522.
Zhu X, Zhu L, Duan Z, Qi R, Li Y & Lang Y (2008) Comparative toxicity of several metal oxide nanoparticle aqueous suspensions to zebrafish (Danio rerio) early developmental stage. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A43: 278–284.
Please check your email for instructions on resetting your password.
If you do not receive an email within 10 minutes, your email address may not be registered,
and you may need to create a new Wiley Online Library account.
Request Username
Can't sign in? Forgot your username?
Enter your email address below and we will send you your username
If the address matches an existing account you will receive an email with instructions to retrieve your username
The full text of this article hosted at iucr.org is unavailable due to technical difficulties.
