Paper
Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis of Gunshot Defects to Bone: An Underutilized Source of Information on Ballistic Trauma†
John M. Rickman M.Sc.,
Martin J. Smith Ph.D.,
John M. Rickman M.Sc.
School of Applied Sciences, Bournemouth University, Poole, Dorset, BH12 5BB U.K
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Martin J. Smith Ph.D.
School of Applied Sciences, Bournemouth University, Poole, Dorset, BH12 5BB U.K
Additional information and reprint requests:
Martin J. Smith, Ph.D.
School of Applied Sciences
Bournemouth University
Poole, Dorset BH12 5BB
U.K.
E-mail: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorJohn M. Rickman M.Sc.,
Martin J. Smith Ph.D.,
John M. Rickman M.Sc.
School of Applied Sciences, Bournemouth University, Poole, Dorset, BH12 5BB U.K
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Martin J. Smith Ph.D.
School of Applied Sciences, Bournemouth University, Poole, Dorset, BH12 5BB U.K
Additional information and reprint requests:
Martin J. Smith, Ph.D.
School of Applied Sciences
Bournemouth University
Poole, Dorset BH12 5BB
U.K.
E-mail: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this author†
Support for this research was received as part of a larger grant to Bournemouth University by the Steele Trust.
Abstract
Recent years have seen increasing involvement by forensic anthropologists in the interpretation of skeletal trauma. With regard to ballistic injuries, there is now a large literature detailing gross features of such trauma; however, less attention has been given to microscopic characteristics. This article presents analysis of experimentally induced gunshot trauma in animal bone (Bos taurus scapulae) using full metal jacket (FMJ), soft point (SP), and captive bolt projectiles. The results were examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Additional analysis was conducted on a purported parietal gunshot lesion in a human cranial specimen. A range of features was observed in these samples suggesting that fibrolamellar bone response to projectile impact is analogous to that observed in synthetic composite laminates. The results indicate that direction of bullet travel can be discerned microscopically even when it is ambiguous on gross examination. It was also possible to distinguish SP from FMJ lesions. SEM analysis is therefore recommended as a previously underexploited tool in the analysis of ballistic trauma.
References
- 1Loe L. Perimortem trauma. In: S Blau, DH Ubelaker, editors. Handbook of forensic anthropology and archaeology. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press Inc, 2009; 263–83.
- 2Bartelink EJ, Wiersema JM, Demaree RS. Quantitative analysis of sharp force trauma: an application of scanning electron microscopy in forensic anthropology. J Forensic Sci 2001; 46(6): 1288–93.
- 3Ross AH. Calibre estimation from cranial entrance defect measurements. J Forensic Sci 1996; 41(4): 629–33.
- 4Komar DA, Buikstra JE. Forensic anthropology: contemporary theory and practice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2008.
- 5Kimmerle EH, Baraybar JP. Skeletal trauma: identification of injuries resulting from human rights abuse and armed conflict. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2008.
- 6Ubelaker DH, Smialek JE. The interface of forensic anthropology and forensic pathology in trauma interpretation. In: DW Steadman, editor. Hard evidence: case studies in forensic anthropology. Canbury, NJ: Pearson Education, 2003; 155–9.
- 7Pope EJ, O'Brian CS. Identification of traumatic injury in burned cranial bone: an experimental approach. J Forensic Sci 2004; 49(3): 1–10.
- 8Shipman P, Rose J. Early hominid hunting, butchering and carcass processing behaviours: approaches to the fossil record. J Anthropol Archaeol 1983; 2: 57–98.
- 9Liam KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L. Functional anatomy of the vertebrates: an evolutionary perspective, 3rd rev. edn. San Diego, CA: Harcourt College Publishers, 2001.
- 10White TW, Folkens PA. The human bone manual. San Diego, CA: Elsevier, 2005.
- 11Currey JD. Bones: structure and mechanics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.
10.1515/9781400849505 Google Scholar
- 12Jiahau Y, Mecholsky JJ, Clifton KB. How tough is bone? Applications of elastic-plastic fracture mechanisms to bone. Bone 2007; 40: 479–84.
- 13Abdel-Wahab AA, Maligno AR, Siberschmidt VV. Microscale modelling of bovine cortical bone fracture: analysis of crack propagation and microstructure using X-FEM. Comput Mater Sci 2012; 52(1): 128–35.
- 14Rubin MA, Rubin J, Jasiuk I. SEM and TEM study of the hierarchical structure of C577BL/6J and C3H/HeJ mice trabecular bone. Bone 2004; 35: 11–20.
- 15Rho JY, Kuhn-Spearing L, Zioupos P. Mechanical properties and the hierarchical structure of bone. Med Eng Phys 1998; 20: 92–102.
- 16Olszta MJ, Cheng X, Jee SS, Kumar R, Kim YY, Kaufman MJ, et al. Bone structure and formation: a new perspective. Mater Sci Eng R Rep 2007; 58: 77–116.
- 17Fratzl P, Weinkamer R. Nature's hierarchical materials. Prog Mater Sci 2007; 52: 1263–334.
- 18Ghanbari J, Naghdabadi R. Non-linear hierarchical multiscale modelling of cortical bone considering its nanoscale microstructure. J Biomech 2009; 42: 1560–5.
- 19Houck MM. Skeletal trauma and the individualisation of knife marks in bone. In: KJ Reichs, editor. Forensic osteology: advances in the identification of human remains. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1998; 410–24.
- 20Matricardi VR, Clark MS, DeRonja FS. The comparison of broken surfaces: a scanning electron microscopic study. J Forensic Sci 1975; 20(3): 507–23.
- 21Tucker BK, Hutchinson DL, Gilliland MFG, Charles TM, Daniel HJ, Wolfe LD. Microscopic characteristics of hacking trauma. J Forensic Sci 2001; 46(2): 234–40.
- 22White TD. Cutmarks on the Bodo cranium: a case of prehistoric defleshing. Am J Phys Anthropol 1986; 69: 503–9.
- 23Pickering TR, White TD, Toth N. Brief Communication: cutmarks on a Plio-Pleistocene hominid from Sterkfontein, South Africa. Am J Phys Anthropol 2000; 111: 579–84.
10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(200004)111:4<579::AID-AJPA12>3.0.CO;2-Y CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
- 24Bromage TG, Boyde A. Microscopic criteria for the determination of directionality of cutmarks on bone. Am J Phys Anthropol 1984; 63: 359–66.
- 25Smith MJ, Brickley MB, Leach SL. Experimental evidence for lithic projectile injuries: improving identification of an under-recognised phenomenon. J Archaeol Sci 2007; 34: 540–53.
- 26Melki JAD, Martin CCS, Zerbini T. Scanning electron microscopy as an auxiliary method in the study of exhumed bones. Forensic Sci Int 2011; 206(1–3): 367–70.
- 27Alunni-Perret V, Muller-Bolla M, Laugier JP, Lupi-Pégurier L, Bertrand MF, Staccini P, et al. Scanning electron microscopy analysis of experimental bone hacking trauma. J Forensic Sci 2005; 50(4): 1–6.
- 28Zhi-Jin Z, Jia-Zhen Z. Study on the microstructures of skull fracture. Forensic Sci Int 1991; 50: 1–14.
- 29Vermeji EJ, Zoon PD, Chang SBCG, Keereweer I, Pieterman R, Gerretsen RRR. Analysis of microtraces in invasive traumas using SEM/EDS. Forensic Sci Int 2012; 214(1): 96–104.
- 30Speeter D, Ohnsorge J. Rasterelektronenmikroskopisch erfaßbare Schußzeichen am Knochen. Z Rechtsmed 1973; 73: 137–43.
- 31Gaîdash AA, Bashirov RS, Kolkutin VV, Tolmachev IA, Bozchenko AP, Denisov AV. New data on the morphogenesis of gunshot bone injuries. Sud Med Ekspert 2010; 53(4): 4–7. Article in Russian; abstract only.
- 32Chen Y, Miao Y, Xu C, Zhang G, Lei T, Tan Y. Wound ballistics of the pig mandibular angle: preliminary finite element analysis and experimental study. J Biomech 2010; 43: 1131–7.
- 33Florquin N. The instrument matters; assessing the cost of small arms violence. In: EG Berman, K Krause, editors. Small arms survey 2006. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2006; 118–212.
- 34Rhine JS, Curran BK. Multiple gunshot wounds of the head: an anthropological review. J Forensic Sci 1990; 35(5): 1236–45.
- 35Berryman HE, Gunther WM. Keyhole defect production in tubular bone. J Forensic Sci 2000; 45(2): 483–7.
- 36Fenton TW, Stefan VH, Wood LA, Sauer NJ. Symmetrical fracturing of the skull from midline contact gunshot wounds: reconstruction of individual death histories from skeletonised human remains. J Forensic Sci 2005; 50(2): 1–12.
- 37Hart GO. Fracture pattern interpretation in the skull: differentiating blunt force from ballistics trauma using concentric fractures. J Forensic Sci 2005; 50(6): 1–6.
- 38Huelke DF, Darling JH. Bone fractures produced by bullets. J Forensic Sci 1964; 9(4): 461–9.
- 39Harger JH, Huelke DF. Femoral fractures produced by projectiles- the effects of mass and diameter on target damage. J Biomech 1970; 3: 487–93.
- 40Quatrehomme G, Işcan MY. Postmortem skeletal lesions. Forensic Sci Int 1997; 89: 155–65.
- 41Quatrehomme G, İşcan MY. Analysis of bevelling in gunshot entrance wounds. Forensic Sci Int 1998; 93: 45–60.
- 42Quatrehomme G, İşcan MY. Characteristics of gunshot wounds in the skull. J Forensic Sci 1999; 44(3): 568–76.
- 43Berryman HG, Smith OC, Symes SA. Diameter of cranial gunshot wounds as a function of bullet calibre. J Forensic Sci 1995; 40(5): 751–4.
- 44Smith O, Berryman HE, Symes SA, Francisco JT, Hnilica V. Atypical gunshot exit defects to the cranial vault. J Forensic Sci 1993; 38(2): 339–43.
- 45Coe JI. External bevelling of exit wounds by handguns. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 1982; 3(3): 215–9.
- 46Peterson BL. External bevelling of cranial gunshot entrance wounds. J Forensic Sci 1991; 36(5): 1592–5.
- 47Bhoopat T. A case of internal bevelling with an exit gunshot wound to the skull. Forensic Sci Int 1995; 71: 97–101.
- 48Byers SN. Introduction to forensic anthropology. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 2002.
- 49Berryman HE, Symes SA. Recognising gunshot and blunt cranial trauma through fracture interpretation. In: KJ Reichs, editor. Forensic osteology: advances in the identification of human remains. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1998; 333–52.
- 50Di Maio VJM. Gunshot wounds: practical aspects of forearms, ballistics, and forensic techniques, 2nd rev. edn. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1999.
- 51Dixon DS. Keyhole lesions in gunshot wounds of the skull and direction of fire. J Forensic Sci 1982; 27(3): 555–66.
- 52Steadman DW, Basler W, Hochrein MJ, Klein DF, Goodin JC. Domestic homicide investigations: an example from the United States. In: S Blau, DH Ubelaker, editors. Handbook of forensic archaeology and anthropology. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press Inc, 2009; 351–62.
- 53Kobayashi M, Sakurada K, Nakajima M, Iwase H, Hatanaka K, Matsuda Y, et al. A ‘keyhole lesion’ gunshot wound in an adipocere case. Leg Med 1999; 1: 170–3.
- 54Asamura H, Takayanagi K, Chunyan L, Ota M, Fukushima H. The judgement of a gunshot wound with severe post-mortem changes. Leg Med 1999; 1: 185–7.
- 55Sauer NJ. The timing of injuries and manner of death: distinguishing among antemortem, perimortem and postmortem trauma. In: KJ Reichs, editor. Forensic osteology: advances in the identification of human remains. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1998; 321–32.
- 56de la Grandmaison GL, Brion F, Durigon M. Frequency of bone lesions: an inadequate criterion for gunshot wound diagnosis in skeletal remains. J Forensic Sci 2001; 46(3): 593–5.
- 57Moraitis K, Spiliopoulou C. Forensic implications of carnivore scavenging on human remains recovered from outdoor locations in Greece. J Forensic Leg Med 2010; 17: 298–303.
- 58Smith O, Symes SA, Berryman HE, LaVaughn MA. Matching bullets to bone impact signatures. J Forensic Sci 1991; 36(6): 1736–9.
- 59Cunha E, Pinheiro J. Antemortem trauma. In: S Blau, DH Ubelaker, editors. Handbook of forensic archaeology and anthropology. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press Inc, 2009; 246–62.
- 60Lee S, Novitskaya E, Reynante B, Vasquez J, Urbaniak R, Takahashi T, et al. Impact testing of structural biological materials. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl 2011; 31: 730–9.
- 61da Silva JEL, Paciornik S, d'Almeida JRM. Determination of the post-ballistic impact mechanical behaviour of a ± 45° glass-fabric composite. Polym Test 2004; 23: 599–604.
- 62Caprino G, Lopresto V, Langella A, Durante M. Irreversibly absorbed energy and damage in GFRP laminates impacted at low velocity. Compos Struct 2011; 93: 2853–60.
- 63Donadon MV, Ianucci L, Falzon BG, Hodgekinson JM, de Almeida SFM. A progressive failure model for composite laminates subjected to low velocity impact damage. Comput Struct 2008; 86: 1232–52.
- 64Fidan S, Sımazçelik T, Avcu E. Internal damage of the impacted glass/glass + aramid fiber reinforced composites by micro-computerised tomography. NDT and E Int 2012; 51: 1–7.
- 65Tan VBC, Shim VPW, Tay TE. Experimental and numerical study of the response of flexible laminates to impact loading. Int J Solids Struct 2003; 40: 6245–66.
- 66Weiner S, Traub W, Wagner HD. Lamellar bone: structure-function relations. J Struct Biol 1999; 126: 241–55.
- 67Tita V, de Carvalho J, Vandepitte D. Failure analysis of low velocity impact on thin composite laminates: experimental and numerical approaches. Compos Struct 2008; 83: 413–28.
- 68Warlow TA. Firearms, the law and forensic ballistics. London, UK: Taylor and Francis, 1996.
- 69http://www.pmp.co.za/index.php?page=smallarms3 (accessed March 8, 2012).
- 70http://www.prvipartizan.com/rifle.php (accessed March 8, 2012).
Citing Literature
