Differences in Dental Size Among the Indigenous Population of the Canary Islands
Rebeca García-González
Laboratory of Human Evolution, Department of History, Geography and Comunication, Faculty of Humanities and Comunication, Universidad de Burgos Edificio, Burgos, Spain
Contribution: Conceptualization (lead), Data curation (lead), Formal analysis (lead), Methodology (equal), Writing - original draft (lead), Writing - review & editing (lead)
Search for more papers by this authorAarón Morquecho Izquier
G. I. Tarha. Department of Historical Sciences, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
Contribution: Conceptualization (lead), Data curation (lead), Formal analysis (lead), Methodology (equal), Writing - original draft (equal), Writing - review & editing (equal)
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Jonathan Santana
G. I. Tarha. Department of Historical Sciences, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
Correspondence:
Jonathan Santana ([email protected])
Contribution: Conceptualization (equal), Data curation (equal), Formal analysis (equal), Methodology (equal), Writing - original draft (lead), Writing - review & editing (lead)
Search for more papers by this authorRebeca García-González
Laboratory of Human Evolution, Department of History, Geography and Comunication, Faculty of Humanities and Comunication, Universidad de Burgos Edificio, Burgos, Spain
Contribution: Conceptualization (lead), Data curation (lead), Formal analysis (lead), Methodology (equal), Writing - original draft (lead), Writing - review & editing (lead)
Search for more papers by this authorAarón Morquecho Izquier
G. I. Tarha. Department of Historical Sciences, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
Contribution: Conceptualization (lead), Data curation (lead), Formal analysis (lead), Methodology (equal), Writing - original draft (equal), Writing - review & editing (equal)
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Jonathan Santana
G. I. Tarha. Department of Historical Sciences, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
Correspondence:
Jonathan Santana ([email protected])
Contribution: Conceptualization (equal), Data curation (equal), Formal analysis (equal), Methodology (equal), Writing - original draft (lead), Writing - review & editing (lead)
Search for more papers by this authorFunding: This work was supported by the H2020 European Research Council (Grant 851733) and the Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades (Grants CNS2022-136039, PID2021-122355NB-C31, RTI2018-101923-J-I00, and RYC2019-028346).
ABSTRACT
Nonmetric dental traits and odontometrics have demonstrated that pre-European populations of the Canarian archipelago are closely related to Northwest Africans, revealing varying degrees of interisland diversity. However, a comprehensive study of differences across various islands has not yet been conducted. This study aims to analyze the differences in dental size among the island populations of the Canary Islands during the indigenous period. The mesiodistal (MD) and buccolingual (BL) diameters, along with the geometric mean of the permanent teeth (I1-M2), were measured in 347 adult individuals from each of the Canary Islands, excluding Lanzarote. Statistical analyses were performed to identify interisland differences in tooth size and between island populations. Two distinct patterns emerged: the populations of Fuerteventura and Gran Canaria had the largest BL and MD diameters, respectively, whereas the populations of El Hierro and La Palma had the smallest values for most teeth. These differences are statistically significant, especially between Gran Canaria (largest teeth) and El Hierro (smallest BL and MD diameters). Our results indicate heterogeneity in dental size, suggesting genetic differences between the eastern and western islands and limited gene flow among islands after the initial settlement. Furthermore, subsistence practices seem to influence these differences. Overall, the findings provide insights into the interplay of genetic isolation, subsistence strategies, body size variations, and sexual dimorphism.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Open Research
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are partially available in the article and are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Supporting Information
| Filename | Description |
|---|---|
| OA_3385-sup-0001-SupplementaryMaterial.docxWord 2007 document , 796.3 KB |
Table S1 Sample details for each individual from the indigenous period included in this study. Table S2. Number of teeth analyzed for each of the Canarian Indigenous populations. Table S3. Summary statistics of each variable measured in upper first incisors from each Indigenous population. Table S4. Summary statistics of each variable measured in upper second incisors from each Indigenous population. Table S5. Summary statistics of each variable measured in upper canines from each Indigenous population. Table S6. Summary statistics of each variable measured in upper first premolars from each Indigenous population. Table S7. Summary statistics of each variable measured in upper second premolars from each Indigenous population. Table S8. Summary statistics of each variable measured in upper first molars from each Indigenous population. Table S9. Summary statistics of each variable measured in upper second molars from each Indigenous population. Table S10. Summary statistics of each variable measured in lower first incisors from each Indigenous population. Table S11. Summary statistics of each variable measured in lower second incisors from each Indigenous population. Table S12. Summary statistics of each of variables measured in lower canine from each Indigenous population. Table S13. Summary statistics of each variable measured in lower first premolar from each Indigenous population. Table S14. Summary statistics of each variable measured in lower second premolar from each Indigenous population. Table S15. Summary statistics of each variable measured in lower first molar from each of the Canary Islands. Table S16. Summary statistics of each variable measured in lower second molar from each of the Canary Islands. Table S17. P-values from the Mann–Whitney U test with Bonferroni correction comparing dental variables of first incisors among the Indigenous populations with sample sizes ≥ 10. Table S18. P-values from the Mann–Whitney U test with Bonferroni correction comparing dental variables of second incisors among the Indigenous populations with sample sizes ≥ 10. Table S19. P-values from the Mann–Whitney U test with Bonferroni correction comparing dental variables of canines among the Indigenous populations with sample sizes ≥ 10. Table S20. P-values from the Mann–Whitney U test with Bonferroni correction comparing dental variables of first premolars among the Indigenous populations with sample sizes ≥ 10. Table S21. P-values from the Mann–Whitney U test with Bonferroni correction comparing dental variables of second premolars among the Indigenous populations with sample sizes ≥ 10. Table S22. P-values from the Mann–Whitney U test with Bonferroni correction comparing dental variables of first molars among the Indigenous populations with sample sizes ≥ 10. Table S23. P-values from the Mann–Whitney U test with Bonferroni correction comparing dental variables of second molars among the different Indigenous populations. Table S24. Spearman’s r coefficient of correlation between the dental diameters and the wear degree by tooth. Table S25. P-values from the Mann–Whitney U test with Bonferroni correction comparing the mesiodistal diameters and the geometric mean of upper first premolars across different Indigenous populations, taking dental wear degree into account. Table S26. P-values from the Mann–Whitney U test with Bonferroni correction comparing the mesiodistal diameters and geometric mean of upper first molars across different Indigenous populations, taking dental wear degree into account. Table S27. P-values from the Mann–Whitney U test with Bonferroni correction comparing the mesiodistal diameters of lower second incisor and the buccolingual diameter of lower second molars across different Indigenous populations, taking dental wear degree into account. Figure S1. Line plots of BL and MD diameters (medians) in dentition for each indigenous population. Red: maxillary teeth. Blue: mandibular teeth. Triangles: buccolingual diameters. Squares: Mesio-distal diameters. Figure S2. Number of individuals by wear degree, tooth, and population. The horizontal axis shows the wear degree. Blue: El Hierro, Pink: La Palma, Red: La Gomera, Gray: Tenerife, Yellow: Gran Canaria, Purple: Fuerteventura. |
Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.
References
- Albanese, J., H. F. Cardoso, and S. R. Saunders. 2005. “Universal Methodology for Developing Univariate Sample-Specific Sex Determination Methods: An Example Using the Epicondylar Breadth of the Humerus.” Journal of Archaeological Science 32, no. 1: 143–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2004.08.003.
- Arnay-de-la-Rosa, M., E. González-Reimers, Y. Yanes, C. Romanek, J. Noakes, and L. Galindo-Martín. 2011. “Palaeonutritional and Palaeodietary Survey on Prehistoric Humans From Las Cañadas del Teide (Tenerife, Canary Islands) Based on Chemical and Histological Analysis of Bone.” Journal of Archaeological Science 38, no. 4: 884–895. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2010.11.018.
- Arnay-de-la-Rosa, M., E. González-Reimers, Y. Yanes, J. Velasco-Vázquez, C. Romanek, and J. Noakes. 2010. “Palaeodietary Analysis of the Prehistoric Population of the Canary Islands Inferred From Stable Isotopes (Carbon, Nitrogen and Hydrogen) in Bone Collagen.” Journal of Archaeological Science 37, no. 7: 1490–1501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2010.01.009.
- Bailit, H. L. 1966. “Tooth Size Variability, Inbreeding, and Evolution.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 134, no. 2: 616–623. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1966.tb43049.x.
- Bermúdez de Castro, J. M. 1989. “The Carabelli Trait in Human Prehistoric Populations of the Canary Islands.” Human Biology 61, no. 1: 117–131.
- Bermúdez de Castro, J. M., and S. L. de Ipiña. 1987. “Análisis de la variabilidad dental en las poblaciones prehistóricas de Canarias.” Cuadernos de Sección, Antropología y Etnografía 4: 133–168.
- Bermúdez de Castro, J. M., and M. E. Nicolas. 1995. “Posterior Dental Size Reduction in Hominids: The Atapuerca Evidence.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 96, no. 4: 335–356. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330960403.
- Brace, C. L. 1967. “Environment, Tooth Form, and Size in the Pleistocene.” Journal of Dental Research 46, no. 5: 809–816. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220345670460053501.
- Brace, C. L., K. R. Rosenberg, and K. D. Hunt. 1987. “Gradual Change in Human Tooth Size in the Late Pleistocene and Post-Pleistocene.” Evolution 41, no. 4: 705–720. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1987.tb05847.x.
- Calcagno, J. M., and K. R. Gibson. 1988. “Human Dental Reduction: Natural Selection or the Probable Mutation Effect.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 77, no. 4: 505–517.
- Carretero, J.-M., L. Rodríguez, R. García-González, et al. 2012. “Stature Estimation From Complete Long Bones in the Middle Pleistocene Humans From the Sima de los Huesos, Sierra de Atapuerca (Spain).” Journal of Human Evolution 62, no. 2: 242–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.11.004.
- Carretero, J.-M., L. Rodríguez, R. García-González, R.-M. Quam, and J.-L. Arsuaga. 2018. “Exploring Bone Volume and Skeletal Weight in the Middle Pleistocene Humans From the Sima de los Huesos Site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain).” Journal of Anatomy 233, no. 6: 740–754. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.12886.
- Delgado-Darias, T., J. Velasco-Vázquez, M. Arnay-de-la-Rosa, E. Martín-Rodríguez, and E. González-Reimers. 2005. “Dental Caries Among the Prehispanic Population From Gran Canaria.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 128, no. 3: 560–568. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20087.
- Dempsey, P., and G. C. Townsend. 2001. “Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Variation in Human Tooth Size.” Heredity 86, no. 6: 685–693. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2540.2001.00878.x.
- Duday H. (2009). The Archaeology of the Dead. Lectures in Archaeothanatology. Studies in Funerary Archaeology, vol. 3. Oxbow, Oxford and Oakville.
10.2307/j.ctt1cd0pkv Google Scholar
- Fernández-Palacios, J. M., and R. J. Whittaker. 2008. “The Canaries: An Important Biogeographical Meeting Place.” Journal of Biogeography 35, no. 3: 379–387. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2008.01890.x.
- Frayer, D. W. 1977. “Metric Dental Change in the European Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 46, no. 1: 109–120. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330460114.
- Fregel, R., A. C. Ordóñez, J. Santana, et al. 2019. “Mitogenomes Illuminate the Origin and Migration Patterns of the Indigenous People of the Canary Islands.” PLoS ONE 14, no. 3: e0209125. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209125.
- Garn, S. M., A. B. Lewis, D. R. Swindler, and R. S. Kerewsky. 1967. “Genetic Control of Sexual Dimorphism in Tooth Size.” Journal of Dental Research 46, no. 5: 963–972. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220345670460055801.
- González-Reimers, E., M. Castañeyra-Ruiz, A. Trujillo-Mederos, and M. Arnay-de-la-Rosa. 2017. “Differences in Tibial Shape Among the Prehispanic Inhabitants From Gomera, Punta Azul (El Hierro), and Gran Canaria (Canary Islands).” Anthropologischer Anzeiger 74, no. 4: 309–318. https://doi.org/10.1127/anthranz/2017/0687.
- González-Reimers, E., A. Trujillo-Mederos, A. C. Ordóñez, M. Castañeyra-Ruiz, and M. Arnay-de-la-Rosa. 2015. “Sexual Dimorphism: A Comparative Study Between Inhabitants From El Hierro and Other Populations of the Word.” European Journal of Anatomy 19, no. 1: 59–64.
- Guatelli-Steinberg, D., J. Irish, and J. Lukacs. 2001. “Canary Islands-North African Population Affinities: Measures of Divergence Based on Dental Morphology.” Homo 52, no. 2: 173–188. https://doi.org/10.1078/0018-442X-00027.
- Guatelli-Steinberg, D., P. W. Sciulli, and T. K. Betsinger. 2008. “Dental Crown Size and Sex Hormone Concentrations: Another Look at the Development of Sexual Dimorphism.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 137, no. 3: 324–333. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20878.
- Hagenblad, J., J. Morales, M. W. Leino, R. Abbey-Lee, A. C. Rodríguez-Rodríguez, and J. Santana. 2024. “Utilizing Ancient DNA to Understand Crop Population Dynamics Across a Millennium: A Case Study of Archaeological Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) From Gran Canaria, Spain.” Journal of Archaeological Science 167: 106001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2024.106001.
- Hammer, Ø., and D. A. Harper. 2001. “Past: Palaeontological Statistics Software Package for Educaton and Data Anlysis.” Palaeontologia Electronica 4, no. 1: 1.
- Hanihara, K. 1976. Statistical and Comparative Studies of the Australian Aboriginal Dentition. Vol. 11, 1–57. Tokyo: University Museum, University of Tokyo Bulletin.
- Hanihara, T. 1992. “Dental and Cranial Affinities Among Populations of East Asia and the Pacific: The Basic Populations in East Asia IV.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 88, no. 2: 163–182. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330880205.
- Hanihara, T., and H. Ishida. 2005. “Metric Dental Variation of Major Human Populations.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 128, no. 2: 287–298. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20080.
- Harris, E. F. 1998. “ Ontogenetic and Intraspecific Patterns of Odontometric Associations in Humans.” In Human Dental Development, Morphology, and Pathology: A Tribute to Albert A. Dahlberg, edited by J. R. Lukacs, 299–346. Eugene: University of Oregon Anthropology Papers.
- Harris, E. F., and H. L. Bailit. 1988. “A Principal Components Analysis of Human Odontometrics.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 75, no. 1: 87–99.
- Harris, E. F., and T. A. Rathbun. 1991. “ Ethnic Differences in the Apportionment of Tooth Sizes.” In Advances in Dental Anthropology, edited by M. A. Kelley and C. S. Larsen, 121–142. New York: Wiley-Liss.
- Hemphill, B. E., J. R. Lukacs, and K. A. Kennedy. 1991. “ Biological Adaptations and Affinities of Bronze Age Harappans.” In Harappa Excavations, 1986-1990: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Third Millenium Urbanism, vol. 3, 137–182. Madison, Wisconsin: Prehistory Press.
- Irish, J. D., and B. E. Hemphill. 2004. “An Odontometric Investigation of Canary Islander Origins.” Dental Anthropology Journal 17, no. 1: 8–17.
10.26575/daj.v17i1.139 Google Scholar
- Klaus, H. D., and M. E. Tam. 2010. “Oral Health and the Postcontact Adaptive Transition: A Contextual Reconstruction of Diet in Mórrope, Peru.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 141, no. 4: 594–609. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.21179.
- Lukacs, J. R. 2007. “Dental Trauma and Antemortem Tooth Loss in Prehistoric Canary Islanders: Prevalence and Contributing Factors.” International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 17, no. 2: 157–173. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.864.
- Macchiarelli, R. 1989. “Prehistoric “Fish-Eaters” Along the Eastern Arabian Coasts: Dental Variation, Morphology, and Oral Health in the Ra's al-Hamra Community (Qurum, Sultanate of Oman, 5th–4th millennia BC).” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 78, no. 4: 575–594. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330780411.
- Macchiarelli, R., and L. Bondioli. 1986. “Post-Pleistocene Reductions in Human Dental Structure: A Reappraisal in Terms of Increasing Population Density.” Human Evolution 1: 405–417. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02436617.
10.1007/BF02436617 Google Scholar
- Mesa Hernández, E. 2017. Entre lapas y burgados. Los guanches y el aprovechamiento de los recursos marisqueros. Santa Cruz de Tenerife: Fundación CajaCanarias.
- Mitchell, P. J. 2023. “Archaeological Research in the Canary Islands: Island Archaeology Off Africa's Atlantic Coast.” Journal of Archaeological Research 32: 155–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-023-09186-y.
- Morales, J., A. Rodríguez Cainzos, and P. Henríquez Valido. 2017. “ Agricultura y recolección vegetal en la arqueología prehispánica de las Islas Canarias (siglos III-XV dC): La contribución de los estudios carpológicos.” In Miscelánea en homenaje a Lydia Zapata Peña (1965–2015), edited by J. Fernández Eraso, A. Mujika, A. Arrizabalaga, and M. García Diez, 189–218. Bilbao: Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea.
- Morales, J., C. Speciale, A. Rodríguez-Rodríguez, et al. 2023. “Agriculture and Crop Dispersal in the Western Periphery of the Old World: The Amazigh/Berber Settling of the Canary Islands (ca. 2nd–15th Centuries CE).” Vegetation History and Archaeobotany: 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-023-00920-6.
- Navarro-Mederos, J. F. 1997. “Arqueología de las Islas Canarias.” Espacio, Tiempo y Forma Serie I Prehistoria y arqueología 10: 447–478.
- Ordóñez, A. C., R. Fregel, A. Trujillo-Mederos, M. Hervella, C. Dela Rúa, and M. Arnay dela Rosa. 2017. “Genetic Studies on the Prehispanic Population Buried in Punta Azul Cave (El Hierro, Canary Islands).” Journal of Archaeological Science 78: 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2016.11.004.
- Parker, W., Y. Yanes, E. Mesa Hernández, et al. 2020. “Shellfish Exploitation in the Western Canary Islands Over the Last Two Millennia.” Environmental Archaeology 25, no. 1: 14–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/14614103.2018.1497821.
- Puga, M., J. G. Serrano, E. L. García, et al. 2024. “El Hierro Genome Study: A Genomic and Health Study in an Isolated Canary Island Population.” Journal of Personalized Medicine 14, no. 6: 626. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm14060626.
- Rodríguez-Rodríguez, A., J. Santana, P. C. Alonso, et al. 2021. “Un lugar entre las dunas. Aprovechamiento oportunista de un espacio costero durante la etapa preeuropea de la isla de Gran Canaria (circa siglos VIII-XI AD).” Trabajos de Prehistoria 78, no. 2: 325–343. https://doi.org/10.3989/tp.2021.12279.
10.3989/tp.2021.12279 Google Scholar
- Rodríguez-Santana, C. G. 1994. Las ictiofaunas arqueológicas del Archipiélago Canario: Una aproximación a la pesca prehistórica. Spain: Universidad de la Laguna, San Cristóbal de La Laguna.
- Romero, A., F. V. Ramirez-Rozzi, and A. Pérez-Pérez. 2018. “Dental Size Variability in Central African Pygmy Hunter-Gatherers and Bantu-Speaking Farmers.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 166, no. 3: 671–681. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23458.
- Sánchez-Cañadillas, E., J. Beaumont, J. Santana, M. Gorton, and M. Arnay-de-la-Rosa. 2023. “The Early Lives of the Islanders: Stable Isotope Analysis of Incremental Dentine Collagen From the Prehispanic Period of the Canary Islands.” American Journal of Biological Anthropology 182, no. 2: 300–317. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.24828.
- Sánchez-Cañadillas, E., J. Carballo, E. Padrón, et al. 2021. “Dietary Changes Across Time: Studying the Indigenous Period of La Gomera Using δ13C and δ15N Stable Isotope Analysis and Radiocarbon Dating.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 175, no. 1: 137–155. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.24220.
- Santana, J., M. del Pino, J. Morales, et al. 2024. “The Chronology of the Human Colonization of the Canary Islands.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 121, no. 28: e2302924121. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2302924121.
- Santana, J., J. Velasco-Vázquez, and A. Rodríguez-Rodríguez. 2015. “Entheseal Changes and Sexual Division of Labor in a North-African Population: The Case of the Pre-Hispanic Period of the Gran Canaria Island (11th–15th c. CE).” HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology 66, no. 2: 118–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchb.2014.10.005.
- Scott, E. C. 1979. “Dental Wear Scoring Technique.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 51, no. 2: 213–217. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330510208.
- Scott, G. R. 1980. “Population Variation of Carabelli's Trait.” Human Biology 52, no. 1: 63–78.
- Scott, G. R., and C. G. Turner. 1997. Anthropology of Modern Human Teeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10.1017/CBO9781316529843 Google Scholar
- Senczuk, G., M. Macrì, M. Di Civita, et al. 2024. “The Demographic History and Adaptation of Canarian Goat Breeds to Environmental Conditions Through the Use of Genome-Wide SNP Data.” Genetics Selection Evolution 56, no. 1: 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12711-023-00869-0.
- Serrano, J. G., A. C. Ordóñez, J. Santana, et al. 2023. “The Genomic History of the Indigenous People of the Canary Islands.” Nature Communications 14, no. 1: 4641. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-40198-w.
- Smith, B. H. 1984. “Patterns of Molar Wear in Hunter–Gatherers and Agriculturalists.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 63, no. 1: 39–56. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330630107.
- Trombley, T. M., S. C. Agarwal, P. D. Beauchesne, et al. 2019. “Making Sense of Medieval Mouths: Investigating Sex Differences of Dental Pathological Lesions in a Late Medieval Italian Community.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 169, no. 2: 253–269. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23821.
- Turner, C. G. 1991. “ Scoring Procedures for Key Morphological Traits of the Permanent Dentition: The Arizona State University Dental Anthropology System.” In Advances in Dental Anthropology, edited by M. A. Kelley and C. S. Larsen, 13–31. New York: Wiley-Liss.
- Ungar, P. 2004. “Dental Topography and Diets of Australopithecus Afarensis and Early Homo.” Journal of Human Evolution 46, no. 5: 605–622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.03.004.
- Yang, G., Y. Chen, Q. Li, et al. 2023. “Dental Size Variation in Admixed Latin Americans: Effects of Age, Sex and Genomic Ancestry.” PLoS ONE 18, no. 5: e0285264. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285264.
