In Vitro Degradation and Cytocompatibility Study of Biodegradable Porous Zinc Scaffolds Fabricated by Fused Deposition Modeling Based Rapid Tooling Method
Abhishek Kansal
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh, India
Advanced Manufacturing Lab, Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
Search for more papers by this authorSangita Mahapatra
Divyadrishti Imaging Lab, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
Search for more papers by this authorAkshay Dvivedi
Advanced Manufacturing Lab, Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Pradeep Kumar
Advanced Manufacturing Lab, Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
Correspondence:
Pradeep Kumar ([email protected])
Search for more papers by this authorMayank Goswami
Divyadrishti Imaging Lab, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
Search for more papers by this authorAbhishek Kansal
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh, India
Advanced Manufacturing Lab, Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
Search for more papers by this authorSangita Mahapatra
Divyadrishti Imaging Lab, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
Search for more papers by this authorAkshay Dvivedi
Advanced Manufacturing Lab, Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Pradeep Kumar
Advanced Manufacturing Lab, Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
Correspondence:
Pradeep Kumar ([email protected])
Search for more papers by this authorMayank Goswami
Divyadrishti Imaging Lab, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
Search for more papers by this authorFunding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.
ABSTRACT
An integrative study is conducted on the static biodegradation behavior and cytocompatibility of organized porous network structured (OPNS) zinc scaffolds fabricated via the Fused Deposition Modeling based Rapid Tooling (FDM-RT) method. The degradation study investigates the corrosion mechanism over immersion time in simulated body fluid (SBF), whereas the cytocompatibility study incorporates MTT assay and direct cell counting tests. The results indicate that the scaffold morphology, including scaffold struts, interconnectivity, or porosity, along with the immersion period, significantly influence the degradation behavior. The static corrosion rates are determined to be 0.27 ± 0.006, 0.79 ± 0.01, and 1.35 ± 0.05 mm y−1 for bulk and porous zinc samples after 28 days. The higher corrosion rate of porous zinc alloys is mainly due to their higher surface area, which enhances exposure to the solution. Over time, protective layers form on both porous and bulk samples, leading to a gradual decrease in corrosion rate. The XRD results reveal that the corrosion protective layer is primarily composed of ZnO, Ca3(PO4)2, Zn (OH)2, and Zn3(PO4)2·4H2O. Moreover, MTT assay and direct cell counting of mouse fibroblast 3T3 cells on bulk and porous zinc samples suggest that the prepared zinc samples have potential for tissue engineering applications.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Open Research
Data Availability Statement
Data will be made available on request.
References
- 1A. R. Shrivats, M. C. McDermott, and J. O. Hollinger, “Bone Tissue Engineering: State of the Union,” Drug Discovery Today 19 (2014): 781–786, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2014.04.010.
- 2S. Gómez, M. D. Vlad, J. López, and E. Fernández, “Design and Properties of 3D Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering,” Acta Biomaterialia 42 (2016): 341–350, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2016.06.032.
- 3A. H. Yusop, A. A. Bakir, N. A. Shaharom, M. R. Abdul Kadir, and H. Hermawan, “Porous Biodegradable Metals for Hard Tissue Scaffolds: A Review,” International Journal of Biomaterials 2012 (2012): 641430, https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/641430.
- 4X. Guan, M. Xiong, F. Zeng, et al., “Enhancement of Osteogenesis and Biodegradation Control by Brushite Coating on mg-Nd-Zn-Zr Alloy for Mandibular Bone Repair,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 6 (2014): 21525–21533, https://doi.org/10.1021/am506543a.
- 5S. Wu, X. Liu, K. W. K. Yeung, C. Liu, and X. Yang, “Biomimetic Porous Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering,” Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports 80 (2014): 1–36, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mser.2014.04.001.
- 6A. Kansal, A. Dvivedi, and P. Kumar, “Development and Performance Study of Biomedical Porous Zinc Scaffold Manufactured by Using Additive Manufacturing and Microwave Sintering,” Materials and Manufacturing Processes 38 (2023): 1020–1032, https://doi.org/10.1080/10426914.2022.2089896.
- 7Y. Hou, G. Jia, R. Yue, et al., “Synthesis of Biodegradable Zn-Based Scaffolds Using NaCl Templates: Relationship Between Porosity, Compressive Properties and Degradation Behavior,” Materials Characterization 137 (2018): 162–169, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2018.01.033.
- 8I. Cockerill, Y. Su, S. Sinha, et al., “Porous Zinc Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering Applications: A Novel Additive Manufacturing and Casting Approach,” Materials Science and Engineering: C 110 (2020): 110738, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2020.110738.
- 9C. J. Frederickson, J. Y. Koh, and A. I. Bush, “The Neurobiology of Zinc in Health and Disease,” Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 6 (2005): 449–462, https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1671.
- 10P. K. Bowen, R. J. Guillory, E. R. Shearier, et al., “Metallic Zinc Exhibits Optimal Biocompatibility for Bioabsorbable Endovascular Stents,” Materials Science and Engineering: C 56 (2015): 467–472, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2015.07.022.
- 11Y. Su, K. Wang, J. Gao, et al., “Enhanced Cytocompatibility and Antibacterial Property of Zinc Phosphate Coating on Biodegradable Zinc Materials,” Acta Biomaterialia 98 (2019): 174–185, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2019.03.055.
- 12K. Lietaert, A. A. Zadpoor, M. Sonnaert, et al., “Mechanical Properties and Cytocompatibility of Dense and Porous Zn Produced by Laser Powder Bed Fusion for Biodegradable Implant Applications,” Acta Biomaterialia 110 (2020): 289–302, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2020.04.006.
- 13S. Sadighikia, S. Abdolhosseinzadeh, and H. Asgharzadeh, “Production of High Porosity Zn Foams by Powder Metallurgy Method,” Powder Metallurgy 58 (2015): 61–66, https://doi.org/10.1179/1743290114Y.0000000109.
- 14L. Zhao, Z. Zhang, Y. Song, et al., “Mechanical Properties and In Vitro Biodegradation of Newly Developed Porous Zn Scaffolds for Biomedical Applications,” Materials and Design 108 (2016): 136–144, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.06.080.
- 15R. Yao, S. Han, Y. Sun, et al., “Fabrication and Characterization of Biodegradable Zn Scaffold by Vacuum Heating-Press Sintering for Bone Repair,” Biomaterials Advances 138 (2022): 212968, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioadv.2022.212968.
- 16Y. Li, P. Pavanram, J. Zhou, et al., “Additively Manufactured Biodegradable Porous Zinc,” Acta Biomaterialia 101 (2020): 609–623, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2019.10.034.
- 17D. Xia, Y. Qin, H. Guo, et al., “Additively Manufactured Pure Zinc Porous Scaffolds for Critical-Sized Bone Defects of Rabbit Femur,” Bioactive Materials 19 (2023): 12–23, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2022.03.010.
- 18L. Zhu, X. Tong, Z. Ye, et al., “Zinc Phosphate, Zinc Oxide, and Their Dual-Phase Coatings on Pure Zn Foam With Good Corrosion Resistance, Cytocompatibility, and Antibacterial Ability for Potential Biodegradable Bone-Implant Applications,” Chemical Engineering Journal 450 (2022): 137946, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.137946.
- 19Y. Zheng, C. Huang, Y. Li, et al., “Mimicking the Mechanical Properties of Cortical Bone With an Additively Manufactured Biodegradable Zn-3Mg Alloy,” Acta Biomaterialia 182 (2024): 139–155, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2024.05.023.
- 20A. Kansal, A. Dvivedi, and P. Kumar, “Mapping the Structural Properties of Zinc Scaffold Fabricated via Rapid Tooling for Bone Tissue Engineering Applications,” Rapid Prototyping Journal 29 (2023): 1940–1957, https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-03-2023-0077.
10.1108/RPJ-03-2023-0077 Google Scholar
- 21 ASTM International, “ Standard Test Methods for Density of Compacted or Sintered Powder Metallurgy (PM) Products Using Archimedes' Principle, Astm B962-13,” 1 (2013), 1, https://doi.org/10.1520/B0962-15.2.
10.1520/B0962?15.2 Google Scholar
- 22T. Kokubo and H. Takadama, “How Useful Is SBF in Predicting In Vivo Bone Bioactivity?,” Biomaterials 27 (2006): 2907–2915, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2006.01.017.
- 23L. Müller and F. A. Müller, “Preparation of SBF With Different HCO3- Content and Its Influence on the Composition of Biomimetic Apatites,” Acta Biomaterialia 2 (2006): 181–189, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2005.11.001.
- 24A. S. T. M. Standard, “Standard Practice for Laboratory Immersion Corrosion Testing of Metals,” American Society for Testing and Materials 72 (1985): 534–544, https://doi.org/10.1520/G0031-72R04.2.
10.1520/G0031?72R04.2 Google Scholar
- 25T. Yang, A. S. Fruergaard, A. K. Winther, A. N. Zelikin, and R. Chandrawati, “Zinc Oxide Particles Catalytically Generate Nitric Oxide From Endogenous and Exogenous Prodrugs,” Small 16 (2020): 1–7, https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201906744.
- 26D. Vojtěch, J. Kubásek, J. Šerák, and P. Novák, “Mechanical and Corrosion Properties of Newly Developed Biodegradable Zn-Based Alloys for Bone Fixation,” Acta Biomaterialia 7 (2011): 3515–3522, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2011.05.008.
- 27D. F. Williams, “Materials Preparation,” European Society for Biomaterials 13 (1999): 1–52, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0080-8784(08)60069-1.
10.1016/S0080?8784(08)60069?1 Google Scholar
- 28S. R. Mardashev, A. Y. Nikolaev, and N. N. Sokolov, “Isolation and Properties of a Homogenous L Asparaginase Preparation From Pseudomonas fluorescens AG (Russian),” Biokhimiya 40 (1975): 984–989.
- 29K. Chen, X. Gu, H. Sun, et al., “Fluid-Induced Corrosion Behavior of Degradable Zinc for Stent Application,” Journal of Materials Science and Technology 91 (2021): 134–147, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2021.02.050.
- 30J. Čapek, E. Jablonská, J. Lipov, T. F. Kubatík, and D. Vojtěch, “Preparation and Characterization of Porous Zinc Prepared by Spark Plasma Sintering as a Material for Biodegradable Scaffolds,” Materials Chemistry and Physics 203 (2018): 249–258, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2017.10.008.
- 31D. Mahmoud, M. A. Elbestawi, and B. Yu, “Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Selective Laser Melting of Porosity Graded Gyroids,” Journal of Medical Devices 13 (2019): 1–11, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4043736.
10.1115/1.4043736 Google Scholar
- 32N. S. Murni, M. S. Dambatta, S. K. Yeap, G. R. A. Froemming, and H. Hermawan, “Cytotoxicity Evaluation of Biodegradable Zn-3Mg Alloy Toward Normal Human Osteoblast Cells,” Materials Science and Engineering: C 49 (2015): 560–566, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2015.01.056.
- 33J. Kubásek, D. Vojtěch, E. Jablonská, I. Pospíšilová, J. Lipov, and T. Ruml, “Structure, Mechanical Characteristics and In Vitro Degradation, Cytotoxicity, Genotoxicity and Mutagenicity of Novel Biodegradable Zn-Mg Alloys,” Materials Science and Engineering: C 58 (2016): 24–35, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2015.08.015.
- 34X. Liu, J. Sun, K. Qiu, et al., “Effects of Alloying Elements (Ca and Sr) on Microstructure, Mechanical Property and In Vitro Corrosion Behavior of Biodegradable Zn-1.5Mg Alloy,” Journal of Alloys and Compounds 664 (2016): 444–452, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2015.10.116.
- 35H. Kabir, K. Munir, C. Wen, and Y. Li, “Recent Research and Progress of Biodegradable Zinc Alloys and Composites for Biomedical Applications: Biomechanical and Biocorrosion Perspectives,” Bioactive Materials 6 (2021): 836–879, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2020.09.013.
- 36S. Schuerz, M. Fleischanderl, G. H. Luckeneder, et al., “Corrosion Behaviour of Zn-Al-Mg Coated Steel Sheet in Sodium Chloride-Containing Environment,” Corrosion Science 51 (2009): 2355–2363, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2009.06.019.
- 37J. Winiarski, W. Tylus, and B. Szczygieł, “EIS and XPS Investigations on the Corrosion Mechanism of Ternary Zn-Co-Mo Alloy Coatings in NaCl Solution,” Applied Surface Science 364 (2016): 455–466, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.12.183.
- 38S. Huang, W. Wu, Y. Su, L. Qiao, and Y. Yan, “Insight Into the Corrosion Behaviour and Degradation Mechanism of Pure Zinc in Simulated Body Fluid,” Corrosion Science 178 (2021): 109071, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2020.109071.
- 39A. Drynda, T. Hassel, F. W. Bach, and M. Peuster, “In Vitro and In Vivo Corrosion Properties of New Iron-Manganese Alloys Designed for Cardiovascular Applications,” Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B: Applied Biomaterials 103 (2015): 649–660, https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.b.33234.
- 40N. E. Putra, M. A. Leeflang, M. Minneboo, et al., “Extrusion-Based 3D Printed Biodegradable Porous Iron,” Acta Biomaterialia 121 (2021): 741–756, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2020.11.022.
