1 INTRODUCTION

Forest products contribute to the food security and health promotion of millions of people around the world while providing substantial resources to the national economy (Aissi et al., 2011; Amiri et al., 2021; Avocèvou-Ayisso et al., 2009; Ayegnon et al., 2021a). Lately, using quantitative ethnobotanical methods, local communities' knowledge has been investigated to identify promising plants regarding nutritional quality, medicinal properties, and/or commercial potential (Dembélé et al., 2015). Using these promising plants could contribute to food security by improving the livelihoods of local populations (Amiri et al., 2021; Dembélé et al., 2015). Local communities in West Africa and Biodiversity International selected ten forest tree species with food value as priority species (Vinceti et al., 2022). Among these, the shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) and the butter tree (Pentadesma butyracea) are two of the top ten agroforestry tree species that supply butter. However, industrial interest in fats as raw materials resides in their exceptional quality and potential for exploitation in several fields (Megnanou & Niamke, 2015; Timtey et al., 2023). Shea butter is one of the most beneficial fats produced by plants. Due to its physicochemical properties, this valuable product has gained importance in the multi-billion-dollar international confectionery and cosmetics markets (Glew & Lovett, 2014). Shea has been described as an important tree in socioeconomic terms and was included in the FAO's priority list of African genetic resources (Allen et al., 2019). Due to the requirements of industrialists who consider many properties, using shea butter as a raw material (for the confectionery, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries) could be linked to its exceptional quality and high exploitation potential (Honfo et al., 2014). Currently, the exportation of shea is estimated to be 350,000 tons of shea equivalent (Iddrisu et al., 2019). This is multiplied by recent prices per gross tonnage, which can cost rural communities in the West African region $150 million annually. This activity contributes up to 12% of the total income of the poorest households (Iddrisu et al., 2019). Chocolate and confectionery products account for about 90% of shea butter demand, while only 10% are used for cosmetics and pharmaceuticals (Bello-Bravo et al., 2015). As can be noticed, this product is very attractive in the local, regional, and international marketplaces. Like shea kernels, Pentadesma kernels are the basis for Pentadesma butter, and both shea and Pentadesma kernels might find their way onto local, regional, and international markets. Unfortunately, Pentadesma kernels and their butter, unlike shea products (kernels and butter), were not known for the same success despite their potential application in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries (Timtey et al., 2023). Therefore, what are these potentials? Over the past two decades, several research efforts have been carried out to increase knowledge about the nutritional quality and physicochemical properties of Pentadesma fruits and their products (mesocarp, kernels, and butter). Pentadesma is a rich source of nutrients and bioactive compounds such as phenolic and essential fatty acids. It was revealed that bioactive compounds are health-promoting compounds (El-Nashar et al., 2022). For the most part, the results of these works were scattered. They did not enable us to participate effectively in promoting Pentadesma products, especially Pentadesma butter, whose quality would be better than shea butter. Additionally, the detailed and comprehensive reviews of the scientific data available on shea trees, kernels, and butter (Honfo et al., 2014; Tom-Dery et al., 2018) greatly increase the visibility and economic value of shea products. Despite its nutritional, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and socioeconomic importance, to the best of our knowledge, no detailed review has been devoted to Pentadesma products until now. However, the aim of this paper is not to present a comprehensive review of P. butyracea products but to gather essential scattered information on the tree and its ethnobotanical importance, with a particular emphasis on the nutritional value and physicochemical properties of Pentadesma kernels and butter, and to highlight the health benefits and prospects of P. butyracea products.

2 METHODOLOGY OF DATA COLLECTION

A comprehensive literature search was performed by combining the appropriate keywords, including “tallow tree,” “butter tree,” “Pentadesma butyracea Sabine,” “taxonomy,” “nutritional composition,” “proximate composition,” “traditional uses,” “phytochemicals,” “physiochemical properties,” “antioxidant properties,” “bioactive compounds,” “health benefits.” As for the search engine, Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and PubMed were independently searched (Aranega & Oliveira, 2022; De Souza et al., 2021; Huang et al., 2022; Tian et al., 2023). Both English and French-language published articles were considered. There was no year restriction, and the final search was conducted on February o5, 2023. The references were managed with Mendeley software.

3 TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PENTADESMA BUTYRACEA

As shown in Table 1, the genus Pentadesma is the flowering plant belonging to Clusiaceae (Guttiferae), one of the 42 families of the order Malpighiales. To date, only four African species of this genus, including P. butyracea Sabine, P. grandifolia Baker, P. lebrunii Staner, and P. renders Spirlet, are reported in the literature (Ewédjè et al., 2012). However, Djoufack et al. (2010) state that P. reyndersii and P. granadifolia refer to the same species. This suggests the real existence of three different species. In a more recent publication, Tala et al. (2013) enumerated fifteen species from the genus Pentadesma without naming them. The multiplicity of synonyms of this taxon would result from the description of this plant in restricted collections during the colonial period by various authors (English, French, and German) who have communicated very little between them (Lankoandé et al., 2019; Sinsin & Avocèvou, 2007). According to Ewédjè et al. (2012), all species are known for their seeds yielding significant edible fat. However, P. butyracea is the only species described in the literature for the quality of its butter.

Moreover, the geographical distribution reported in the literature was based on the four species mentioned earlier. According to that, P. renders Spirlet species endemic to Rwanda, while P. grandifolia Baker is only found in the region, including Nigeria, Cameroon, and Gabon. P. lebrunii Staner species is native to the Democratic Republic of Congo and Burundi. The last one, P. butyracea Sabine (Figure 1), has the widest distribution area and is the most valuable in socioeconomic terms. Other species should be more scientifically investigated. The geographical distribution of this species extends from Guinea-Bissau to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Ewédjè et al., 2012), with an extension toward the East. However, Sama et al. (2007) reported that the presence of P. butyracea Sabine in East Africa, especially in Tanzania and Uganda, was under cultivation. P. butyracea Sabine, commonly known as the butter tree or tallow tree, is an evergreen tree that grows mainly in forests and can reach 35 m in height.

4 MEDICINAL POTENTIAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF PHYTOCHEMICALS OF P. BUTYRACEA TREE

5 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF P. BUTYRACEA FRUIT

5.1 Physicochemical and nutritional composition of P. butyracea fruit pulp

The tallow tree (Figure 2a) is mainly utilized for its kernels, which contain edible fats, and has branches with fruits (Figure 2b). Local communities also use it as a cosmetic and medicinal substance. The fruit (Figure 2c) comprises the kernels (Figure 2e), which are directly covered with yellow pulp (Figure 2d). The latter plays an important nutritional role for women, who ensure the collection of kernels. Data on the nutritional quality of this pulp are very scarce. Ayegnon et al. (2021b) reported work that is the only reference available on Pentadesma fruit pulp. According to this report, Pentadesma fruit pulp is a sour, fleshy substance (pH 3.3 and titratable acidity of 0.85%), representing about 39% of the total weight of fruit. Data on the physicochemical characteristics and bioactive properties of P. butyracea fruit pulp are summarized in Table 3. The water content of Pentadesma fruit pulp (86%) is similar to that of avocado (86.7%) but higher than that of shea (75%) fruit pulp (Honfo et al., 2014; Morais et al., 2017). The fruit pulp provides proteins (4%), lipids (6.4%), carbohydrates (66.5%), and dietary fiber (20.5%) as major macronutrients. The dietary fiber content (20.5%) of fruit pulp was twice lower than that of shea (42.2%) and avocado (41.1%). Except for the dietary fiber content, it can be assumed that Pentadesma fruit pulp has a higher macronutrient content than shea pulp. It is also rich in micronutrients. The fruit pulp has approximately 3% of the total ash content. However, the ash content values reported for shea pulp (5.1%) and cocoa pulp (7.6%) are much better (Honfo et al., 2014; Martínez et al., 2012). As for other fruit pulps (cocoa and shea pulps), calcium is one of the most abundant minerals in Pentadesma fruit pulp (Afoakwa et al., 2013; Ayegnon et al., 2021b; Honfo et al., 2014). Pentadesma fruit pulp is richer in iron than shea and cacao fruit pulp and contains a significant amount of zinc. Data on the vitamin content of the pulp were not available in the literature. However, this pulp's high acidity and yellow coloring (Figure 2d) could indicate a significant presence of ascorbic acid and β-carotene. Apart from macro and micronutrients, the pulp is an important source of bioactive compounds, as shown by the value of the total phenolic content (Table 3) and that of the antioxidant activity (Ayegnon et al., 2021b).

TABLE 3. Nutritional composition of Pentadesma butyracea pulp and kernel.

	Pulp			References	Kernel			References
	Min.	Ave.	Max.		Min	Ave	Max
Macronutrients (%)
Moisture	85.5	–	86.4	Ayégnon et al. (2021a,b)	5	7.4	8	Ayegnon et al. (2015), Aissi et al. (2011), Kouadio et al. (1990), Adomako (1977)
Carbohydrates	65.1	–	66.9		40	43.1	45	Tchobo et al. (2013)
Crude protein	3.3	–	4.6		4	5.4	7.3	Aïssi et al. (2018), Tchobo et al. (2013), Kouadio et al. (1990)
Crude lipid	6.3	–	6.5		40	45.8	53.1	Kouadio et al. (1990), Aïssi et al. (2018)
Crude fiber	20.4	–	20.8		–	5.5	–
Ash	2.8	–	3.6		1.8	2.8	4.3
Energy (kcal/100 g dw)	335.8		339.0
Micronutrients (μg/g)
P	–		–		4.7	102.4	200
Ca	1866.8	–	1921.8		27.7	163.9	300	Aïssi (2012), Kouadio et al. (1990), Aïssi et al. (2018)
K	–	–	–		400	950	1500
Mg	–	–	–		99.5	300	500
Mn	40.7		50.3		–	–	–
Fe	176.4		205.5		0.05	0.06	0.1
Zn	16.8		21.5		1.2	1.5	1.9
Total phenolic (mg/ml)	21.5	-	23.5		1.2	1.4	1.6	Tchobo et al. (2013)

6 NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF PENTADESMA BUTTER

Recently, a field investigation showed that butter consumers are willing to pay more for butter with good nutritional quality (Saulais & Ruffieux, 2012). However, studies dealing with the proximate nutritional content of Pentadesma butter (Figure 3b) are very scarce compared to those performed on shea butter. Available information on this butter showed that water content was 0.65% (Ayegnon, Kayodé, et al., 2015) against 4.9% for shea butter (Honfo et al., 2011). Nevertheless, the low water content (1.37%) of shea butter has been reported by Chukwu Adgidzi (Chukwu & Adgidzi, 2008). Depending on their water content, the Codex Alimentarius has classified two types of unrefined butter: (i) grade I butter (for direct consumption, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries), which must have a water content of 0.05% or less, and (ii) grade II butter (for the food industry), which must have a water content of between 0.06% and 0.2% (Aissi et al., 2011; Codex Alimentarius, 2020). Except for butter derived from roasted kernels, the water content values of butter derived from other extraction methods are generally equal to or higher than those expected for grade II butter (Aissi et al., 2011; Ayegnon, Kayodé, et al., 2015). The latter could be used in soap factories or refined for better use (grades I or II) (Aissi et al., 2011). The low moisture content of food products is closely related to their long shelf life. Additionally, low moisture is desirable in fats and oils to preserve shelf life since low moisture prevents or reduces lipid oxidation, contamination, and microbial development. Nowadays, work is still being reported on the presence and variation of some nutrients, such as carbohydrates, crude protein, and the ash of Pentadesma butter. Also, no study investigated its microelement content. However, the current literature shows the fatty acid and triacylglycerol profiles of Pentadesma butter (Table 4). Thus, Pentadesma butter was characterized by different proportions of seven saturated or unsaturated fatty acids: palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, and arachidic (Table 4). Several studies on the fatty acid composition have shown the predominance of stearic (C18:0) and oleic (C18:1ω9) acids, representing more than 96% of the total fatty acids. In contrast, the sterol fraction showed a predominance of ∆-5 sterols, with stigmasterol being the main sterol. The triacylglycerol profile of Pentadesma butter was characterized by the presence of five triacylglycerols: palmityldioleylglycerol (POO), palmitylstearyloleylglycerol (POS), triolein (OOO), stearyldioleylglycerol (SOO), and distearyloleylglycerol (SOS) (Tchobo et al., 2007). SOS was the main triacylglycerol, with a concentration of over 50% (36.6%–62.9%), followed by SOO (33.6%–55.4%). Similarly, Honfo et al. (2014) observed the predominance of OOO (10.8%), SOO (35.2%), and SOS (40.4%) in shea butter. However, the values found were lower than those of Pentadesma butter. The butter's distinctive triglyceride composition, dominated by SOS and SOO, makes it easy to separate the high-melting stearin fraction from the low-melting olein fraction, and the resulting stearin fraction is then used in the cocoa butter equivalent blend (Alander, 2004). Despite the high content of stearic and oleic acids, Tchobo et al. (2007) reported a low content of triolein. Lately, Di Vincenzo et al. (2005) reported regional variation in the content of major triglycerides (SOO, OOO, and SOS) in shea butter.

7 UNSAPONIFIABLE MATTERS

In the last decades, unsaponifiable plant oils and fats have been the subjects of intense research owing to their various bioactivities, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-neuroinflammatory effects (Nahm et al., 2013; Siddique & Saleem, 2011; Toscano et al., 2019). The unsaponifiable matter content of Pentadesma butter (Table 5) was especially dominated by triterpene alcohols, followed by hydrocarbons, sterols, and other minor components such as tocopherol (Table 4). According to Dencausse et al. (1995), lupeol, ɑ-amyrin, and butyrospermol are the main terpenic alcohols found in the unsaponifiable Pentadesma butter. These results agreed with the data reported by other authors (Akihisa et al., 2010; Honfo et al., 2014; Tom-Dery et al., 2018), showing similar levels of the main terpenic alcohols in shea butter. The average sterol content of the Pentadesma butter was 1.773 μg/g oil (Tchobo et al., 2007). The phytosterol comprises ∆⁵ sterols (97%) (Tchobo et al., 2007). The two main phytosterols determined in the butter tree were stigmasterol (44.7%–69%) and campesterol (16%–28%). Brassicasterol and β-sitosterol are sterols found in low concentrations. These phytochemical compounds are known for their significant biological activities. Indeed, previous studies have shown that these bioactive compounds could especially lower serum levels of low-density lipoprotein (Honfo et al., 2014; Sharma et al., 2021). Contrary to Pentadesma butter, only two sterols, 7-stigmasterol and stigmasterol, were found in shea butter (Honfo et al., 2014; Peers, 1977). Other minor bioactive compounds such as tocopherols were found in the unsaponifiable matter of Pentadesma butter. Generally, vegetable oils are an important source of tocopherols, so-called vitamin E, which have free radical scavenging properties. According to Aissi et al. (2011), the tocopherol content of the Pentadesma butter varied with environmental factors and pretreatments undergone by the almonds. The total tocopherol levels in butter range from 95.3 to 194.7 μg/g (Aissi et al., 2011; Tchobo et al., 2007). They are made up of four isomers, especially α, β, γ, and δ-tocopherols (Table 4). Among them, α- and β-tocopherol were found in a high proportion (Aissi et al., 2011; Tchobo et al., 2007). In shea butter, tocopherols were extensively studied by several authors. Their findings revealed that the total tocopherol contents were more important and could reach 805 μg/g (Allal et al., 2013; Honfo et al., 2014; Maranz & Wiesman, 2004). According to Maranz and Wiesman (2004), the amount of α (and total) tocopherols increased in shea butter with an increasing mean regional temperature. Owing to their pivotal role in the nutrition and cosmetic industries, the presence of α-tocopherol in shea and Pentadesma butter makes them an important product, especially in cosmetic applications, human nutrition, and health. Except for tocopherol (vitamin E), no referenced data report the vitamin contents of the butter of Pentadesma. However, the darker yellow color of Pentadesma butter might be due to the presence of carotenoids.

8 QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF PENTADESMA BUTTER

Physicochemical and sensorial characteristics such as moisture, free fatty acids (FFAs), insoluble impurities, iodine value, refractive index, melting point, peroxide values (PVs), and color (Table 5) were many parameters used to appreciate Pentadesma butter quality. However, according to Nsogning Dongmo et al. (2014), the most important quality criteria of plant butter are the FFA content and PV. The cosmetic industry uses first-quality-grade butter (FFA <1%, PV < 10 meq O₂.kg⁻¹). In contrast, second-quality grade butter (FFA <3%, PV < 15 meq O₂.kg⁻¹) is appropriate for the food industry (Iddrisu et al., 2019). Peroxide is the first product of the oxidation of unsaturated fats and oils. According to Aissi et al. (2011), the PV of Pentadesma butter varies with pretreatment operations of kernels and butter, ranging from 0.83 to 1 meq O₂ kg⁻¹. Ayegnon et al. (2019) recently reported a PV of 2.7 meq O₂ kg⁻¹ for Pentadesma butter. These values were lower than those of shea butter (0.5–29.5 meq O₂ kg⁻¹) reported by several researchers (Dandjouma et al., 2009; Honfo et al., 2014) and also were lower than the maximum value of 10 meq O₂ kg⁻¹ required for cosmetic uses (Iddrisu et al., 2019; NBF 01-005, 2006). The FFA content of Pentadesma butter is low and is in the range of 0.49%–2.37% (Table 5) (Jayathissa et al., 2023). The maximum threshold value of FFAs tolerated in cosmetics was 1%, against 3% for food uses (Aissi et al., 2011; Honfo et al., 2013; Iddrisu et al., 2019). The values of FFA found were much lower than those of shea butter (1%–10.7%) reported by most authors (Honfo et al., 2013, 2014; Nahm et al., 2013). According to Tom-Dery et al. (2018), an FFA content of less than 7%, followed by low impurities (<1%), is currently tolerated in the markets. Pentadesma butter is in close agreement with these quality criteria since Aissi et al. (2011) found insoluble impurities ranging from 0.83% to 0.91%. The Pentadesma butter iodine values (47.3–48 mg of I₂/100 g) reported by Dencausse et al. (1995) and Kouadio et al. (1990) were lower than those (64.3 and 89.5 mg of I₂/100 g) obtained, respectively, by Adomako (1977) and Womeni et al. (2004) in shea butter. The unsaponifiables are liposoluble substances dissolved in fat. They are soluble in organic solvents after saponification. Unsaponifiable matter of Pentadesma butter determined by the Bolton and Williams' method varied between 1.5% and 1.8%, against 7.3% and 9.0% for shea butter (Adomako, 1977). However, concerning unsaponifiable, the maximum amounts are desirable in the cosmetics, personal care products, or pharmaceutical industries, while for the food industry, minimum amounts are generally relevant (Nahm et al., 2013). Moreover, Gbenga and Olaseni (2019) reported that the saponification value is inversely proportional to the mean molecular weight of the fatty acid in the glyceride present in the lipid. The saponification values of 185–194 mg KOH/g (Adomako, 1977; Aissi et al., 2011; Kouadio et al., 1990; Tchobo et al., 2013) were close to the reported values (132–207.5 mg KOH/g) by other researchers in shea butter (Honfo et al., 2014; Womeni et al., 2004). The refractive index is a key parameter that expresses the ratio between the speed of light in a vacuum and that of the substance under examination. In the case of oil, it is related to the degree of saturation and the ratio of double bonds (cis and trans). It can also give indications of oxidative alterations. In recent work, Ayegnon, Kayodé, et al. (2015) reported that this parameter was exploited in rapidly sorting fats and oils to assess their diversity and purity. The refractive indices at 40°C of Pentadesma (1.46) and shea (1.46) butter are quite similar (Aissi et al., 2011; Ayegnon, Kayodé, et al., 2015). According to Adomako (1977), Pentadesma and shea butter have identical melting points (39.0–39.5 and 38.0–39.5°C, respectively), and their solidification points (27.0–28.6 and 26.5–30°C, respectively) were not quite different. The relatively low melting point makes shea and Pentadesma butter solid or semi-solid at room temperature. However, they melt when applied to the skin, making this butter a good body moisturizer with great spreading ability (Nahm et al., 2013). Moreover, the Pentadesma butter was light yellow in color, solid or semi-solid at room temperature. It was found that there was a significant difference between the color of shea and Pentadesma butter, especially the yellow index (b*), which was significantly higher than that of the butter shea (Ayegnon, Kayodé, et al., 2015). According to these authors, the yellow color of Pentadesma butter was more attractive than shea butter. The butter of P. butyracea and shea are perfectly similar in many respects. However, the butter of P. butyracea possesses superior quality regarding organoleptic and chemical characteristics that give it a wide range of functional attributes (Ayegnon, Kayodé, et al., 2015; Badoussi et al., 2014).

9 HEALTH BENEFITS OF PENTADESMA BUTTER

No experimentally referenced data is available regarding the benefits of Pentadesma butter on human health. Nevertheless, some well-documented surveys and ethnobotanical studies have usually reported the positive effect of Pentadesma butter in traditional practices. Thus, Pentadesma butter is extensively used in traditional medicine as a massage oil, in skin and hair care, and in the manufacture of soap for its softening, lubricating, and healing qualities (Dencausse et al., 1995). Like shea butter, Pentadesma butter might be a good moisturizer or emollient. Indeed, Ayegnon, Kayodé, et al. (2015) reported that a patented cosmetic product based on Pentadesma butter delayed skin aging. Skin-rejuvenating properties of Pentadesma butter have also been reported. Phytosterols are an important part of the unsaponifiable fraction of vegetable oils. The hypocholesterolemia effects of phytosterol compounds are well recognized. Although there is no information on the use of unsaponifiable compounds from Pentadesma butter, Holanda Pinto et al. (2008) have shown that the triterpenes, α- and β-amyrin extracted from Protium heptaphyllum, also present in Pentadesma butter, were effective in reducing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α related to acute periodontal inflammation. Pentadesma butter has also been employed in the treatment of several ailments. Maranz and Wiesman (2004) and Muotono and Maanikuu (2017) reported that the sun screening property of shea butter is related to shea butter's triterpenoids, especially cinnamate esters of triterpene alcohols that are known to have strong absorbance of ultraviolet radiation in the 250–300 nm range. These triterpenoid compounds were also present in Pentadesma butter and might have the same effect.

10 FUTURE PROSPECTIVES

P. butyracea is a multipurpose tree whose main product is butter extracted from its seeds. As in the case of shea butter, women are the main actors in the Pentadesma butter value chain. In many cases, P. butyracea butter is preferred for food and treatments (Ayegnon, Kayodé, et al., 2015). Due to this butter's nutritional quality and physicochemical and bioactive compounds, major food and cosmetic companies have filed over a dozen patents (Diel et al., 2022). In the past, Pentadesma seeds were exported to European countries. Its butter was extracted for various uses, including the partial or total substitution of cocoa butter (Diel et al., 2022) in confectionery and chocolate making due to its physicochemical properties similar to the latter. Unfortunately, this export has gradually fallen due to the decreasing availability of seeds over the years (Adomako, 1977). Thus, to develop the Pentadesma butter value chain for better access to national, regional, and international markets, much effort needs to be made by public authorities toward local communities in the countries concerned. First, using the tree's wood as a building or raw material for charcoal production seriously jeopardizes the species. This form of exploitation of P. butyracea must be banned. As local communities are the main beneficiaries of a possible Pentadesma butter boom, raising awareness would help quickly remove this obstacle and improve their productivity. If necessary, enforcement of deforestation laws could deter violators. Given that the butter comes from the seed, the quality of the constituent fatty acids as well as the technical characteristics of the butter could depend, to a large extent, on the species and cultivars of this plant. Generally, there needs to be more information on the genetic diversity of the species and the morphological variability of P. butyracea seeds, about their fat content, and technological abilities. Data combining physicochemical, morphological, and molecular features would be paramount in a dynamic of identification, selection, and promotion through the domestication of better quality genotypes. Thus, studies on domestication, genetic diversity evaluation, and species productivity will be undertaken. At the same time, recognizing the tree's potential value in reforestation programs will sustainably promote this resource's development.

Moreover, more data are needed on transforming P. butyracea seeds into butter. The traditional processing is similar to that of shea butter production. The only difference is that the shea nuts are dehulled, as P. butyracea kernels do not have hulls (Aissi et al., 2011). This butter, like many native kinds of butter of African origin, is often obtained through traditional pre-treatment and extraction processes. Traditional pre-treatments such as boiling, roasting (Figure 3a), frying, or smoking fresh seeds have been reported to ensure their preservation. However, they significantly influence their physicochemical characteristics, extraction rate, and butter quality. The extraction from boiled and dried seeds is more difficult but gives the highest yield (Aissi et al., 2011; Badoussi et al., 2014). Butter from traditionally roasted seeds has the lowest acidity, water, and volatile matter contents. It has been observed that α-linolenic acid and β- and δ-tocopherol are completely lost after post-harvest pretreatments (Aissi et al., 2011). The processing equipment design to move from the traditional exclusively manual scale to the mechanical scale with an optimized process would be a major innovation leading to standardized premium butter. A recent investigation has shown that the processing technology and packaging type significantly affect butter's physicochemical and microbiological properties (Badoussi et al., 2022). For this reason, innovation will also consider the butter package material.

Regarding folk medicinal use of the plant and the health claims reported by ethnobotanical investigations, further ethnopharmacological studies will have to be undertaken to identify new bioactive compounds for the development of drugs. Therefore, it is urgent to domesticate the butter tree and incorporate it into agroforestry systems in its natural areas. Domestication will also significantly reduce pressure on natural forest populations. This will contribute to improving food security and reducing poverty by increasing the livelihoods of rural communities.

11 CONCLUSION

Pentadesma butyracea is one of the main multipurpose trees native to tropical Africa. This species is recognized for its economic, nutritional, socio-cultural, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical benefits. It has significant economic potential, and its sustainable management will contribute to food security by empowering women and increasing their income. However, appropriate measures must be taken into account in order to avoid these innovations and improve market access for butter tree products, leading to overexploitation of the species. Sustainability plans are to be established to avoid the anarchical cutting of the P. butyracea tree. Expansion policies must be adopted, and new performant varieties must be introduced.

INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD STATEMENT

Not applicable.

INFORMED CONSENT

Not applicable.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Ifagbémi Bienvenue Chabi: Data curation (equal); formal analysis (equal); funding acquisition (equal); investigation (equal); methodology (equal); software (equal); supervision (equal); visualization (equal); writing – original draft (equal); writing – review and editing (equal). Midimahu Vahid Aïssi: Data curation (equal); funding acquisition (equal); investigation (equal); resources (equal); supervision (equal); validation (equal); visualization (equal). Oscar Zannou: Funding acquisition (equal); investigation (equal); methodology (equal); resources (equal); software (equal). Yénoukounmè E. Kpoclou: Formal analysis (equal); funding acquisition (equal); investigation (equal); methodology (equal); supervision (equal); validation (equal); visualization (equal); writing – original draft (equal). Bernolde Paul Ayegnon: Funding acquisition (equal); investigation (equal); methodology (equal); project administration (equal); supervision (equal); validation (equal). Marius Eric Badoussi: Data curation (equal); formal analysis (equal); funding acquisition (equal); investigation (equal); software (equal); visualization (equal). Vénérande Y. Ballogou: Data curation (equal); formal analysis (equal); investigation (equal); resources (equal); validation (equal); visualization (equal). Gulden Goksen: Formal analysis (equal); investigation (equal); project administration (equal); software (equal); supervision (equal); validation (equal); writing – original draft (equal); writing – review and editing (equal). Amin Mousavi Khaneghah: Data curation (equal); formal analysis (equal); funding acquisition (equal); supervision (equal); writing – original draft (equal); writing – review and editing (equal). Adéchola P. Polycarpe Kayodé: Conceptualization (equal); funding acquisition (equal); investigation (equal); methodology (equal); resources (equal); supervision (equal); validation (equal); writing – original draft (equal).

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

The authors declare no conflict of interest.