RESEARCH ARTICLE
Infants who develop autism show smaller inventories of deictic and symbolic gestures at 12 months of age
Dennis Wu,
Jason J. Wolff,
Shruthi Ravi,
Jed T. Elison,
Annette Estes,
Sarah Paterson,
Tanya St. John,
Hervé Abdi,
Luke E. Moraglia,
Joseph Piven,
Meghan R. Swanson,
for the IBIS Network,
Corresponding Author
Dennis Wu
Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas, USA
Correspondence
Dennis Wu, Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorJason J. Wolff
Department of Educational Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
Search for more papers by this authorShruthi Ravi
Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas, USA
Search for more papers by this authorJed T. Elison
Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
Search for more papers by this authorAnnette Estes
Department of Speech and Hearing Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSarah Paterson
James S. McDonnell Foundation, Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
Search for more papers by this authorTanya St. John
Department of Speech and Hearing Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this authorHervé Abdi
Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas, USA
Search for more papers by this authorLuke E. Moraglia
Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas, USA
Search for more papers by this authorJoseph Piven
Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina - Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
Search for more papers by this authorMeghan R. Swanson
Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas, USA
Search for more papers by this authorfor the IBIS Network
Search for more papers by this authorDennis Wu,
Jason J. Wolff,
Shruthi Ravi,
Jed T. Elison,
Annette Estes,
Sarah Paterson,
Tanya St. John,
Hervé Abdi,
Luke E. Moraglia,
Joseph Piven,
Meghan R. Swanson,
for the IBIS Network,
Corresponding Author
Dennis Wu
Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas, USA
Correspondence
Dennis Wu, Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorJason J. Wolff
Department of Educational Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
Search for more papers by this authorShruthi Ravi
Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas, USA
Search for more papers by this authorJed T. Elison
Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
Search for more papers by this authorAnnette Estes
Department of Speech and Hearing Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSarah Paterson
James S. McDonnell Foundation, Saint Louis, Missouri, USA
Search for more papers by this authorTanya St. John
Department of Speech and Hearing Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
Search for more papers by this authorHervé Abdi
Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas, USA
Search for more papers by this authorLuke E. Moraglia
Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas, USA
Search for more papers by this authorJoseph Piven
Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina - Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
Search for more papers by this authorMeghan R. Swanson
Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas, USA
Search for more papers by this authorfor the IBIS Network
Search for more papers by this authorJoseph Piven and Meghan R. Swanson should be considered as Senior authors.
The Infant Brain Imaging Study (IBIS) Network is an NIH funded Autism Centers of Excellence project and consists of a consortium of 9 universities in the United States and Canada. Clinical Sites: University of North Carolina: J. Piven (IBIS Network PI), H. C. Hazlett, C. Chappell; University of Washington: S. Dager, A. Estes, D. Shaw; Washington University: K. Botteron, R. McKinstry, J. Constantino, J. Pruett: Children's Hospital of Philadelphia: R. Schultz, J. Pandey: University of Alberta: L. Zwaigenbaum: University of Minnesota; J. T. Elison, J. Wolff. Data Coordinating Center: Montreal Neurological Institute: A. C. Evans, D. L. Collins, G. B. Pike, V. Fonov, P. Kostopoulos, S. Das, L. MacIntyre. Image Processing Core: New York University: G. Gerig: University of North Carolina: M. Styner. Statistical Analysis Core: University of North Carolina: H. Gu.
Abstract
Gestures are an important social communication skill that infants and toddlers use to convey their thoughts, ideas, and intentions. Research suggests that early gesture use has important downstream impacts on developmental processes, such as language learning. However, autistic children are more likely to have challenges in their gestural development. The current study expands upon previous literature on the differences in gesture use between young autistic and non-autistic toddlers by collecting data using a parent-report questionnaire called the MCDI–Words and Gestures at three time points, 12, 18, and 24 months of age. Results (N = 467) showed that high-likelihood infants who later met diagnostic criteria for ASD (n = 73 HL-ASD) have attenuated gesture growth from 12 to 24 months for both deictic gestures and symbolic gestures when compared to high-likelihood infants who later did not meet criteria for ASD (n = 249 HL-Neg) and low-likelihood infants who did not meet criteria for ASD (n = 145 LL-Neg). Other social communicative skills, like play behaviors and imitation, were also found to be impacted in young autistic children when compared to their non-autistic peers. Understanding early differences in social communication growth before a formal autism diagnosis can provide important insights for early intervention.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Open Research
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.
Supporting Information
| Filename | Description |
|---|---|
| aur3092-sup-0001-supinfo1.docxWord 2007 document , 303 KB | Data S1: Supporting Information. |
| aur3092-sup-0002-supinfo2.docxWord 2007 document , 50.6 KB | Data S2: Supporting Information. |
Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.
REFERENCES
- Acredolo, L., & Goodwyn, S. (1988). Symbolic gesturing in normal infants. Child Development, 59(2), 450–466. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130324
- American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders ( Fifth ed.). American Psychiatric Association. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 Google Scholar
- Bates, E., Benigni, L., Bretherton, I., Camaioni, L., & Volterra, V. (1979). The emergence of symbols: Cognition and communication in infancy. Academic Press.
- Ben-Shachar, M. S., Lüdecke, D., & Makowski, D. (2020). Effectsize: Estimation of effect size indices and standardized parameters. Journal of Open Source Software, 5(56), 2815. https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.02815
10.21105/joss.02815 Google Scholar
- Bretherton, I., & Bates, E. (1979). The emergence of intentional communication. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 1979(4), 81–100. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.23219790407
10.1002/cd.23219790407 Google Scholar
- CDC. (2020, March 25). Basics about autism spectrum disorder (ASD) | NCBDDD | CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/facts.html
- Charman, T., & Baron-Cohen, S. (1997). Brief report: Prompted pretend play in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 27(3), 325–332. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025806616149
- Charman, T., Drew, A., Baird, C., & Baird, G. (2003). Measuring early language development in preschool children with autism spectrum disorder using the MacArthur communicative development inventory (infant form). Journal of Child Language, 30(1), 213–236. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305000902005482
- Choi, B., Shah, P., Rowe, M. L., Nelson, C. A., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2020). Gesture development, caregiver responsiveness, and language and diagnostic outcomes in infants at high and low risk for autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(7), 2556–2572. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-03980-8
- Choi, B., Wei, R., & Rowe, M. L. (2021). Show, give, and point gestures across infancy differentially predict language development. Developmental Psychology, 57(6), 851–862. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001195
- Christensen, L., Hutman, T., Rozga, A., Young, G. S., Ozonoff, S., Rogers, S. J., Baker, B., & Sigman, M. (2010). Play and developmental outcomes in infant siblings of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(8), 946–957. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-0941-y
- Clough, S., & Duff, M. C. (2020). The role of gesture in communication and cognition: Implications for understanding and treating neurogenic communication disorders. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 14, 323. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.00323
- Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences ( 2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203771587
10.1046/j.1526-4610.2001.111006343.x Google Scholar
- Colgan, S. E., Lanter, E., McComish, C., Watson, L. R., Crais, E. R., & Baranek, G. T. (2006). Analysis of social interaction gestures in infants with autism. Child Neuropsychology: A Journal on Normal and Abnormal Development in Childhood and Adolescence, 12(4–5), 307–319. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297040600701360
- Colonnesi, C., Stams, G. J. J. M., Koster, I., & Noom, M. J. (2010). The relation between pointing and language development: A meta-analysis. Developmental Review, 30(4), 352–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2010.10.001
- Corrigan, R. (1983). The development of representational skills. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 1983(21), 51–64. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.23219832106
10.1002/cd.23219832106 Google Scholar
- Das, S., Glatard, T., MacIntyre, L. C., Madjar, C., Rogers, C., Rousseau, M.-E., Rioux, P., MacFarlane, D., Mohades, Z., Gnanasekaran, R., Makowski, C., Kostopoulos, P., Adalat, R., Khalili-Mahani, N., Niso, G., Moreau, J. T., & Evans, A. C. (2016). The MNI data-sharing and processing ecosystem. NeuroImage, 124, 1188–1195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.08.076
- Delehanty, A., & Wetherby, A. M. (2021). Rate of communicative gestures and developmental outcomes in toddlers with and without autism spectrum disorder during a home observation. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 30(2), 649–662. https://doi.org/10.1044/2020_AJSLP-19-00206
- Delehanty, A., & Wetherby, A. M. (2022). Coordinated social communication in toddlers with and without autism spectrum disorder during a home observation. Autism & Developmental Language Impairments, 7, 23969415221121089. https://doi.org/10.1177/23969415221121089
10.1177/23969415221121089 Google Scholar
- Deloache, J. S. (1995). Early understanding and use of symbols: The model model. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4(4), 109–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10772408
- DeLoache, J. S. (2004). Becoming symbol-minded. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(2), 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2003.12.004
- Doyle, C. M., Lasch, C., Vollman, E. P., Desjardins, C. D., Helwig, N. E., Jacob, S., Wolff, J. J., & Elison, J. T. (2021). Phenoscreening: A developmental approach to research domain criteria-motivated sampling. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 62(7), 884–894. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13341
- Escalona, S. K. (1973). Basic modes of social interaction: Their emergence and patterning during the first two years of life. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development, 19(3), 205–232.
- Estes, A., Zwaigenbaum, L., Gu, H., St. John, T., Paterson, S., Elison, J. T., Hazlett, H., Botteron, K., Dager, S. R., Schultz, R. T., Kostopoulos, P., Evans, A., Dawson, G., Eliason, J., Alvarez, S., & Piven, J. (2015). Behavioral, cognitive, and adaptive development in infants with autism spectrum disorder in the first 2 years of life. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 7(1), 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11689-015-9117-6
- Fein, G. G. (1981). Pretend play in childhood: An integrative review. Child Development, 52(4), 1095–1118. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129497
- Fenson, L., Marchman, V. A., Thal, D. J., Dale, P. S., Steven Reznick, J., & Bates, E. (2006). The MacArthur-Bates communicative development inventories user's guide and technical manual ( Second ed.). Brookes.
- Franchini, M., Duku, E., Armstrong, V., Brian, J., Bryson, S. E., Garon, N., Roberts, W., Roncadin, C., Zwaigenbaum, L., & Smith, I. M. (2018). Variability in verbal and nonverbal communication in infants at risk for autism spectrum disorder: Predictors and outcomes. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(10), 3417–3431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3607-9
- Goldin-Meadow, S. (2007). Gesture with speech and without it. In S. D. Duncan, J. Cassel, & E. Levy (Eds.), Gesture and the dynamic dimension of language: Essays in honor of David McNeill (pp. 31–49). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://www.torrossa.com/en/resources/an/5001141
- Goldin-Meadow, S. (2015). Gesture and cognitive development. In Handbook of child psychology and developmental science: Cognitive processes (Vol. 2, 7th ed., pp. 339–380). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy209
10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy209 Google Scholar
- Goldin-Meadow, S., & Alibali, M. W. (2013). Gesture's role in speaking, learning, and creating language. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 257–283. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143802
- Golomb, C., & Cornelius, C. B. (1977). Symbolic play and its cognitive significance. Developmental Psychology, 13(3), 246–252. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.13.3.246
- González-Sala, F., Gómez-Marí, I., Tárraga-Mínguez, R., Vicente-Carvajal, A., & Pastor-Cerezuela, G. (2021). Symbolic play among children with autism spectrum disorder: A scoping review. Children, 8(9), 801. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8090801
- Guthrie, W., Wetherby, A. M., Woods, J., Schatschneider, C., Holland, R. D., Morgan, L., & Lord, C. E. (2023). The earlier the better: An RCT of treatment timing effects for toddlers on the autism spectrum. Autism, 27, 136236132311591. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613231159153
- de Hamilton, A. F. C., Brindley, R. M., & Frith, U. (2007). Imitation and action understanding in autistic spectrum disorders: How valid is the hypothesis of a deficit in the mirror neuron system? Neuropsychologia, 45(8), 1859–1868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.11.022
- Hobson, J. A., Hobson, R. P., Cheung, Y., & Caló, S. (2015). Symbolizing as interpersonally grounded shifts in meaning: Social play in children with and without autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(1), 42–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2122-x
- Hobson, J. A., Hobson, R. P., Malik, S., Bargiota, K., & Caló, S. (2013). The relation between social engagement and pretend play in autism. The British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 31(Pt 1), 114–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.2012.02083.x
- Hutchins, T. (2013). MacArthur-Bates communicative development inventories, second edition. In F. R. Volkmar (Ed.), Encyclopedia of autism spectrum disorders (pp. 1773–1779). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_769
- Ingersoll, B., & Gergans, S. (2007). The effect of a parent-implemented imitation intervention on spontaneous imitation skills in young children with autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 28(2), 163–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2006.02.004
- Ingersoll, B., & Lalonde, K. (2010). The impact of object and gesture imitation training on language use in children with autism. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 53(4), 1040–1051. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2009/09-0043)
- Ingersoll, B., Lewis, E., & Kroman, E. (2007). Teaching the imitation and spontaneous use of descriptive gestures in young children with autism using a naturalistic behavioral intervention. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(8), 1446–1456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0221-z
- Ingersoll, B., & Walton, K. (2013). Play intervention. In F. R. Volkmar (Ed.), Encyclopedia of autism Spectrum disorders (pp. 2287–2291). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_1898
10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_1898 Google Scholar
- Iverson, J. M., Capirci, O., & Caselli, M. C. (1994). From communication to language in two modalities. Cognitive Development, 9(1), 23–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/0885-2014(94)90018-3
- Iverson, J. M., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2005). Gesture paves the way for language development. Psychological Science, 16(5), 367–371. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01542.x
- Iverson, J. M., Northrup, J. B., Leezenbaum, N. B., Parladé, M. V., Koterba, E. A., & West, K. L. (2018). Early gesture and vocabulary development in infant siblings of children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(1), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3297-8
- Jarrold, C. (2003). A review of research into pretend play in autism. Autism, 7(4), 379–390. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361303007004004
- Kasari, C., Freeman, S., & Paparella, T. (2006). Joint attention and symbolic play in young children with autism: A randomized controlled intervention study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(6), 611–620. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01567.x
- Kelly, S. D., Özyürek, A., & Maris, E. (2010). Two sides of the same coin: Speech and gesture mutually interact to enhance comprehension. Psychological Science, 21(2), 260–267. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797609357327
- Kenward, M. G., & Roger, J. H. (1997). Small sample inference for fixed effects from restricted maximum likelihood. Biometrics, 53(3), 983–997. https://doi.org/10.2307/2533558
- Kuhn, L. J., Willoughby, M. T., Wilbourn, M. P., Vernon-Feagans, L., & Blair, C. B. (2014). Early communicative gestures prospectively predict language development and executive function in early childhood. Child Development, 85(5), 1898–1914. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12249
- Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B., Christensen, R. H. B., & Jensen, S. P. (2020). lmerTest: Tests in linear mixed effects models (3.1-3) [computer software]. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=lmerTest
- Landa, R., & Garrett-Mayer, E. (2006). Development in infants with autism spectrum disorders: A prospective study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(6), 629–638. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01531.x
- Landa, R. J., Holman, K. C., & Garrett-Mayer, E. (2007). Social and communication development in toddlers with early and later diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(7), 853. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.7.853
- Lee, Y.-C., Chan, P.-C., Lin, S.-K., Chen, C.-T., Huang, C.-Y., & Chen, K.-L. (2016). Correlation patterns between pretend play and playfulness in children with autism spectrum disorder, developmental delay, and typical development. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 24, 29–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2016.01.006
- Lenth, R. V., Buerkner, P., Herve, M., Love, J., Miguez, F., Riebl, H., & Singmann, H. (2022). emmeans: Estimated Marginal Means, aka Least-Squares Means (1.7.2) [Computer software]. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=emmeans
- Liszkowski, U. (2014). Two sources of meaning in infant communication: Preceding action contexts and act-accompanying characteristics. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences, 369(1651), 20130294. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0294
- Lord, C., Risi, S., Lambrecht, L., Cook, E. H., Leventhal, B. L., DiLavore, P. C., Pickles, A., & Rutter, M. (2000). The autism diagnostic observation schedule—Generic: A standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(3), 205–223. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592401947
- Lucca, K., & Wilbourn, M. P. (2018). Communicating to learn: Infants' pointing gestures result in optimal learning. Child Development, 89(3), 941–960. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12707
- Luyster, R. J., Kadlec, M. B., Carter, A., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2008). Language assessment and development in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(8), 1426–1438. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0510-1
- Manwaring, S., Stevens, A., Mowdood, A., & Lackey, M. (2018). A scoping review of deictic gesture use in toddlers with or at-risk for autism spectrum disorder. Autism & Developmental Language Impairments, 3, 239694151775189. https://doi.org/10.1177/2396941517751891
10.1177/2396941517751891 Google Scholar
- Manwaring, S., Swineford, L., Mead, D. L., Yeh, C.-C., Zhang, Y., & Thurm, A. (2019). The gesture–language association over time in toddlers with and without language delays. Autism & Developmental Language Impairments, 4, 2396941519845545. https://doi.org/10.1177/2396941519845545
10.1177/2396941519845545 Google Scholar
- McCune, L. (1995). A normative study of representational play at the transition to language. Developmental Psychology, 31(2), 198–206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.31.2.198
- McCune, L. (2009). Developing symbolic abilities. In B. Wagoner (Ed.), Symbolic transformation: The mind in movement through culture and society (pp. 173–192). Routledge.
- McCune-Nicolich, L. (1981). Toward symbolic functioning: Structure of early pretend games and potential parallels with language. Child Development, 52(3), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129078
- McGillion, M., Herbert, J. S., Pine, J., Vihman, M., de Paolis, R., Keren-Portnoy, T., & Matthews, D. (2017). What paves the way to conventional language? The predictive value of babble, pointing, and socioeconomic status. Child Development, 88(1), 156–166. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12671
- Mitchell, S., Brian, J., Zwaigenbaum, L., Roberts, W., Szatmari, P., Smith, I., & Bryson, S. (2006). Early language and communication development of infants later diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 27(2), S69–S78.
- Morin-Lessard, E., Hentges, R. F., Tough, S. C., & Graham, S. A. (2021). Developmental pathways between infant gestures and symbolic actions, and children's communicative skills at age 5: Findings from the all our families pregnancy cohort. Child Development, 92(3), 799–810. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13567
- Mullen, E. M. (1995). Mullen scales of early learning. Pearsons.
- Orr, E. (2020). Object play as a mediator of the role of exploration in communication skills development. Infant Behavior and Development, 60, 101467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2020.101467
- Orr, E., & Geva, R. (2015). Symbolic play and language development. Infant Behavior and Development, 38, 147–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2015.01.002
- Özçalışkan, Ş., Adamson, L. B., & Dimitrova, N. (2016). Early deictic but not other gestures predict later vocabulary in both typical development and autism. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 20(6), 754–763. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361315605921
- Ozonoff, S., Young, G. S., Steinfeld, M. B., Hill, M. M., Cook, I., Hutman, T., Macari, S., Rogers, S. J., & Sigman, M. (2009). How early do parent concerns predict later autism diagnosis? Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 30(5), 367–375.
- Piaget, J. (1952). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood (p. ix, 296). W W Norton & Co.
- Piaget, J. (1962). The stages of the intellectual development of the child. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 26, 120–128.
- R Core Team. (2021). R: A language and environment for statistical computing [computer software]. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org/
- Rakoczy, H., Tomasello, M., & Striano, T. (2017). How children turn objects into symbols: A cultural learning account. In Symbol use and symbolic representation: Developmental and comparative perspectives (pp. 69–97). Scopus.
- Ramos-Cabo, S., Vulchanov, V., & Vulchanova, M. (2019). Gesture and language trajectories in early development: An overview from the autism spectrum disorder perspective. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1211. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01211
- Ramos-Cabo, S., Vulchanov, V., & Vulchanova, M. (2021). Different ways of making a point: A study of gestural communication in typical and atypical early development. Autism Research, 14(5), 984–996. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2438
- Rogers, S. J., Hepburn, S. L., Stackhouse, T., & Wehner, E. (2003). Imitation performance in toddlers with autism and those with other developmental disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44(5), 763–781. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00162
- Rowe, M. L., Özçalişkan, Ş., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2008). Learning words by hand: Gesture's role in predicting vocabulary development. First Language, 28(2), 182–199. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142723707088310
- Rutherford, M. D., & Rogers, S. J. (2003). Cognitive underpinnings of pretend play in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33(3), 289–302. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1024406601334
- Rutherford, M. D., Young, G. S., Hepburn, S., & Rogers, S. J. (2007). A longitudinal study of pretend play in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(6), 1024–1039. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0240-9
- Rutter, M., LeCouteur, A., & Lord, C. (2003). Autism diagnostic interview—Revised ( WPS ed.). Western Psychological Services.
- Smith, I. M., & Bryson, S. E. (2007). Gesture imitation in autism: II. Symbolic gestures and pantomimed object use. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 24(7), 679–700. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643290701669703
- Smith, V., Mirenda, P., & Zaidman-Zait, A. (2007). Predictors of expressive vocabulary growth in children with autism. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50(1), 149–160. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2007/013)
- Sparrow, S. S., Cicchetti, D. V., & Balla, D. (2005). Vineland adaptive behavior scales ( Second ed.). American Guidance Service. https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Ft15164-000
- Spencer, P. E. (2011). Prelinguistic communication. In S. Goldstein & J. A. Naglieri (Eds.), Encyclopedia of child behavior and development (pp. 1145–1146). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_2218
10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_2218 Google Scholar
- Stefanini, S., Bello, A., Caselli, M. C., Iverson, J. M., & Volterra, V. (2009). Co-speech gestures in a naming task: Developmental data. Language & Cognitive Processes, 24(2), 168–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/01690960802187755
- Stone, W. L., Ousley, O. Y., Yoder, P. J., Hogan, K. L., & Hepburn, S. L. (1997). Nonverbal communication in two- and three-year-old children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 27(6), 677–696. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1025854816091
- Strid, K., Heimann, M., & Tjus, T. (2013). Pretend play, deferred imitation and parent-child interaction in speaking and non-speaking children with autism. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 54(1), 26–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12003
- Swanson, M. R., Shen, M. D., Wolff, J. J., Elison, J. T., Emerson, R., Styner, M., Hazlett, H. C., Truong, K., Watson, L. R., Paterson, S., Marrus, N., Botteron, K., Pandey, J., Schultz, R. T., Dager, S., Zwaigenbaum, L., Estes, A. M., & Piven, J. (2017). Subcortical brain and behavior phenotypes differentiate infants with autism versus language delay. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 2(8), 664–672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2017.07.007
- Talbott, M. R., Nelson, C. A., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2015). Maternal gesture use and language development in infant siblings of children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(1), 4–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1820-0
- Thiemann-Bourque, K., Brady, N., & Fleming, K. (2012). Symbolic play of preschoolers with severe communication impairments with autism and other developmental delays: More similarities than differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(5), 863–873. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-011-1317-7
- Thiemann-Bourque, K., Johnson, L., & Brady, N. C. (2019). Similarities in functional play and differences in symbolic play of children with autism Spectrum disorder. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 124(1), 77–91. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-124.1.77
- Tomasello, M. (2010). Piagetian and Vygotskian approaches to language acquisition. Human Development, 39(5), 269–276. https://doi.org/10.1159/000278478
10.1159/000278478 Google Scholar
- Tomasello, M., Carpenter, M., Call, J., Behne, T., & Moll, H. (2005). Understanding and sharing intentions: The origins of cultural cognition. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(5), 675–691. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X05000129; discussion 691–735.
- Vallotton, C. D., & Ayoub, C. C. (2010). Symbols build communication and thought: The role of gestures and words in the development of engagement skills and social-emotional concepts during toddlerhood. Social Development, 19(3), 601–626. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2009.00549.x
- Veness, C., Prior, M., Bavin, E., Eadie, P., Cini, E., & Reilly, S. (2012). Early indicators of autism spectrum disorders at 12 and 24 months of age: A prospective, longitudinal comparative study. Autism, 16(2), 163–177. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361311399936
- Vivanti, G., Dissanayake, C., & The Victorian ASELCC Team. (2016). Outcome for children receiving the early start Denver model before and after 48 months. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(7), 2441–2449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2777-6
- Volkmar, F., Chawarska, K., & Klin, A. (2005). Autism in infancy and early childhood. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 315–336. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070159
- Wainwright, B. R., Allen, M. L., & Cain, K. (2020). The influence of labelling on symbolic understanding and dual representation in autism spectrum condition. Autism & Developmental Language Impairments, 5, 2396941520931728. https://doi.org/10.1177/2396941520931728
10.1177/2396941520931728 Google Scholar
- Watson, L. R., Crais, E. R., Baranek, G. T., Dykstra, J. R., & Wilson, K. P. (2013). Communicative gesture use in infants with and without autism: A retrospective home video study. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 22(1), 25–39. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2012/11-0145)
- Werner, H., & Kaplan, B. (1964). Symbol formation: An organismic-developmental approach to language and the expression of thought. Language, 40(4), 566. https://doi.org/10.2307/411939
- West, K. L., Roemer, E. J., Northrup, J. B., & Iverson, J. M. (2020). Profiles of early actions and gestures in infants with an older sibling with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 63(4), 1195–1211. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_JSLHR-19-00013
- Wetherby, A., Prizant, B., & Hutchinson, T. (1998). Communicative, social/affective, and symbolic profiles of young children with autism and pervasive developmental disorders. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 7, 79–91. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360.0702.79
- Wetherby, A. M., Watt, N., Morgan, L., & Shumway, S. (2007). Social communication profiles of children with autism spectrum disorders late in the second year of life. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(5), 960–975. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0237-4
- Wetherby, A. M., Woods, J., Allen, L., Cleary, J., Dickinson, H., & Lord, C. (2004). Early indicators of autism spectrum disorders in the second year of life. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(5), 473–493. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-004-2544-y
- Whalen, C., Schreibman, L., & Ingersoll, B. (2006). The collateral effects of joint attention training on social initiations, positive affect, imitation, and spontaneous speech for young children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(5), 655–664. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0108-z
- Whitehouse, A. J. O., Varcin, K. J., Alvares, G. A., Barbaro, J., Bent, C., Boutrus, M., Chetcuti, L., Cooper, M. N., Clark, A., Davidson, E., Dimov, S., Dissanayake, C., Doyle, J., Grant, M., Iacono, T., Maybery, M., Pillar, S., Renton, M., Rowbottam, C., … Hudry, K. (2019). Pre-emptive intervention versus treatment as usual for infants showing early behavioural risk signs of autism spectrum disorder: A single-blind, randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 3(9), 605–615. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(19)30184-1
- Williams, E., Reddy, V., & Costall, A. (2001). Taking a closer look at functional play in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(1), 67–77. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1005665714197
- Ye, Q., Liu, L., Lv, S., Cheng, S., Zhu, H., Xu, Y., Zou, X., & Deng, H. (2021). The gestures in 2–4-year-old children with autism spectrum disorder. Frontiers in Psychology, Vol 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.604542
- Zeanah, C. H., Gunnar, M. R., McCall, R. B., Kreppner, J. M., & Fox, N. A. (2011). Sensitive periods. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 76(4), 147–162. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5834.2011.00631.x
- Zwaigenbaum, L., Bryson, S., Rogers, T., Roberts, W., Brian, J., & Szatmari, P. (2005). Behavioral manifestations of autism in the first year of life. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 23(2–3), 143–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2004.05.001
Citing Literature
