Article
Full Access
Craniometric variation and the settlement of the Americas: Testing hypotheses by means of R-matrix and matrix correlation analyses
Rolando González-José,
Silvia L. Dahinten,
María A. Luis,
Miquel Hernández,
Hector M. Pucciarelli,
Corresponding Author
Rolando González-José
Unitat d'Antropologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, 08027 Barcelona, Spain
Unitat d'Antropologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Avinguda Diagonal 645, 08028 Barcelona, SpainSearch for more papers by this authorSilvia L. Dahinten
Centro Nacional Patagónico-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, 9120 Puerto Madryn, Argentina
Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Search for more papers by this authorMaría A. Luis
Departamento Científico de Antropología del Museo de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
Search for more papers by this authorMiquel Hernández
Unitat d'Antropologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, 08027 Barcelona, Spain
Search for more papers by this authorHector M. Pucciarelli
Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Departamento Científico de Antropología del Museo de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
Search for more papers by this authorRolando González-José,
Silvia L. Dahinten,
María A. Luis,
Miquel Hernández,
Hector M. Pucciarelli,
Corresponding Author
Rolando González-José
Unitat d'Antropologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, 08027 Barcelona, Spain
Unitat d'Antropologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Avinguda Diagonal 645, 08028 Barcelona, SpainSearch for more papers by this authorSilvia L. Dahinten
Centro Nacional Patagónico-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, 9120 Puerto Madryn, Argentina
Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Search for more papers by this authorMaría A. Luis
Departamento Científico de Antropología del Museo de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
Search for more papers by this authorMiquel Hernández
Unitat d'Antropologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, 08027 Barcelona, Spain
Search for more papers by this authorHector M. Pucciarelli
Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Departamento Científico de Antropología del Museo de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
New archaeological findings and the incorporation of new South American skull samples have raised fundamental questions for the classical theories of the Americas' settlement. The aim of this study was to estimate craniometric variability among several Asian and Native American populations in order to test goodness of fit of the data to different models of ancient population entries and dispersions into the New World. Our data set includes Howells' variables recorded on East Asian, North American, and South American natives (except for Na-Dene speakers). Five Fuego-Patagonian samples and one Paleoamerican sample were also included. A multivariate extension of the R-matrix method for quantitative traits was used to obtain Fst values, which were considered estimations of intergroup variation. Three main models for the peopling of the New World were represented in hypothetical design matrices. Matrix permutation tests were performed to quantify the fit of the observed data with 1) geographical separation of the samples and 2) three ways of settlement, which were the Three Migration Model (TMM), the Single Wave Migration model (SWM), and the Two Components Settlement Model (TCS). R-matrix results showed high levels of heterogeneity among Native Americans. Matrix permutation analyses suggested that the model involving high Amerindian heterogeneity and two different morphological patterns or components (derived “Mongoloid” vs. generalized “non-Mongoloid”) explains better the variation observed, even when the effects of geographical separation are removed. Whether these patterns arose as a result of two separate migration events or by local evolution from Paleoamericans to Amerindians remains unresolved. Am J Phys Anthropol 116:154–165, 2001. © 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
LITERATURE CITED
- Acosta J. 1962. Historia natural y moral de las Indias [1589]. Madrid.
- Bailliet G, Rothhammer F, Carnese FR, Bravi CM, Bianchi NO. 1994. Founder mitochondrial haplotypes in Amerindian populations. Am J Hum Genet 54: 27–33.
-
Bianchi NO,
Bailliet G,
Bravi CM,
Carnese FR,
Rothammer F,
Martínez-Marignac VL,
Pena SDJ.
1997.
Origin of Amerindian Y-chromosomes as inferred by the analysis of six polymorphic markers.
Am J Phys Anthropol
102:
79–89.
10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199701)102:1<79::AID-AJPA7>3.0.CO;2-8 CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
- Bianchi NO, Catanesi CI, Bailliet G, Martínez-Marignac VL, Vidal Roja LB, Bravi CM, Herrera RJ, López Camelo JS. 1998. Characterization of ancestral and derived Y-chromosome haplotypes of New World native populations. Am J Hum Genet 63: 1862–1871.
- Bonatto SL, Salzano FM. 1997a. A single and early migration for the peopling of the Americas supported by mitochondrial DNA sequence data. Proc Natl Acad Sci uSA 94: 1866–1871.
- Bonatto SL, Salzano FM. 1997b. Diversity and age of the four major mtDNA haplogroups, and their implications for the peopling of the New World. Am J Hum Genet 61: 1413–1423.
- Borrero LA, Mc Ewan C. 1997. The peopling of Patagonia. In: C McEwan, LA Borrero, A Prieto, editors. Patagonia. Natural history, prehistory and ethnography at the uttermost end of the earth. London: British Museum Press. p 32–45.
-
Bortolini MC,
Salzano FM,
Zago MA,
Silva WA Jr,
Weimer TA.
1997.
Genetic variability in two Brazilian ethnic groups: a comparison of mitochondrial and protein data.
Am J Phys Anthropol
103:
147–156.
10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199706)103:2<147::AID-AJPA1>3.0.CO;2-R CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
- Cole TM. 1996. The use of matrix permutation tests for evaluating competing hypotheses of modern human origins. J Hum Evol 31: 477–484.
- Corruccini RS. 1973. Size and shape in similarity coefficients based on metric characters. Am J Phys Anthropol 38: 743–754.
-
Crawford MA.
1998.
The origins of Native Americans. Evidence from anthropological genetics.
New York:
Cambridge University Press.
10.1017/CBO9780511574658 Google Scholar
-
Da Silva WA,
Bortolini MC,
Meyer D,
Salzano FM,
Elion J,
Krishnamoorty R,
Schneider MPC,
Castro de Guerra D,
Layrisse Z,
Mendez Castellan H,
Azevedo Weimer T,
Zago MA.
1999.
Genetic diversity of two african and sixteen South American populations determined on the basis of six hypervariable loci.
Am J Phys Anthropol
109:
425–437.
10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199908)109:4<425::AID-AJPA1>3.0.CO;2-D PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
- Deka R, Shriver MD, Yu LM, Ferrel RE, Chakraborty R. 1995. Intra and inter-populational diversity at short tandem repeat loci in diverse populations of the world. Electrophoresis 16: 1659–1664.
- Dillehay TD, Collins MB. 1988. Early cultural evicence from Monte Verde in Chile. Nature 332: 150–152.
- Dow MM, Cheverud JM. 1985. Comparison of genetic distance matrices in studies of population structure and genetic microdifferentiation. Quadratic assignement. Am J Phys Anthropol 68: 367–373.
- González-José R, Dahinten S, Hernández MH. 2001. The settlement of Patagonia: a matrix correlation study. Hum Biol. 73: 233–248.
- Greenberg JH, Turner CG, Zegura SL. 1986. The settlement of the Americas: a comparison of the linguistic, dental and genetic evidence. Curr Anthropol 27: 477–495.
- Guidon N, Delibrias G. 1986. Carbon-14 dates point to man in the Americas 32,000 years ago. Nature 321: 769–771.
- Harpending HC, Jenkins T. 1973. Genetic distance among Southern African populations. In: MH Crawford, PL Workman, editors. Methods and theories of anthropological genetics. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. p 177–199.
- Harris EF. 1980. Sex differences in lingual marginal ridging on the human maxillary central incisor. Am J Phys Anthropol 52: 541–548.
-
Hernández M,
Lalueza C,
García-Moro C.
1997.
Fueguian cranial morphology: the adaptation to a cold, harsh environment.
Am J Phys Anthropol
103:
103–117.
10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199705)103:1<103::AID-AJPA7>3.0.CO;2-X PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
- Howells WW. 1973. Cranial variation in man: a study by multivariate analysis of patterns of difference among recent human populations. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, volume 67. Cambridge: Harvard University.
- Howells WW. 1989. Skull shapes and the map. Craniometric analyses in the dispersion of modern Homo. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, volume 79. Cambridge: Harvard University.
- Hrdlička A. 1925. The origin and antiquity of the American Indian. Annu Rep Smithson Inst Washington 1923: 481–494.
- Konigsberg LW. 1997. Comments on matrix permutation tests in the evaluation of competing models for modern human origins. J Hum Evol 32: 479–488.
- Konigsberg LW, Kramer A, Donelly SM, Relethford JH, Blangero J. 1994. Modern human origins. Nature 372: 229.
- Lahr MM. 1995. Patterns of modern human diversification: implications for Amerindian origins. Am J Phys Anthropol 38: 163–198.
- Lalueza C, Pérez-Pérez A, Prats E, Cornudella L, Turbón D. 1997. Lack of founding Amerindian mitochondrial DNA lineages in extinct Aborigines from Tierra del Fuego-Patagonia. Hum Mol Genet 6: 41–46.
- Mantel N. 1967. The detection of disease clustering and a generalized regression approach. Cancer Res 27: 209–220.
- McCulloch RD, Clapperton CM, Rabassa J, Currant A. 1997. The natural setting. The glacial and post glacial environmental history of Fuego-Patagonia. In: c McEwan, LA Borrero, A Prieto, editors. Patagonia. Natural history, prehistory and ethnography at the uttermost end of the earth. London: British Museum Press. p 12–31.
- Meltzer DJ. 1997. Monte Verde and the Pleistocene peopling of the Americas. Science 276: 754–755.
- Merriwether DA, Rothammer F, Ferrel RE. 1995. Distribution of the four founding lineage haplotypes in native americans suggest a single wave of migration for the New World. Am J Phys Anthropol 98: 411–443.
- Moraga ML, Rocco P, Miquel JF, Nervi F, Llop E, Chakraborty R, Rothhammer F, Carvallo P. 2000. Mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms in Chilean aboriginal populations: implications for the peopling of the Southern cone of the continent. Am J Phys Anthropol 113: 19–29.
- Morell V. 1990. Confusion in earliest America. Science 248: 439–441.
- Neves WA, Pucciarelli HM. 1990. The origin of the first Americans: an analysis based on the cranial morphology of early South American human remains. Am J Phys Anthropol 81: 274.
- Neves WA, Pucciarelli HM. 1991. Morphological affinities of the first Americans: an exploratory analysis based on early South American human remains. J Hum Evol 21: 261–273.
- Neves WA, Pucciarelli HM. 1998. The Zhoukoudien Upper Cave skull 101 as seen from the Americas. J Hum Evol 34: 219–222.
- Neves WA, Powell JF, Ozolins EG. 1999a. Extra-continental morphological affinities of Lapa Vermelha IV, Hominid 1: a multivariate analysis with progressive numbers of variables. Homo 50: 263–282.
- Neves WA, Munford D, Zanini MC, Pucciarelli HM. 1999b. Cranial morphological variation in South America and the colonization of the New World: towards a four migration model? Ciencia Cultura J Braz Assoc Adv Sci 51: 151–165.
- Novick GE, Novick CC, Yunis J, Yunis E, Antunez de Mayolo P, Scheer DW, Deininger PL, Stoneking M, York DS, Batzer MA, Herrera RJ. 1998. Polymorphic Alu insertions and the Asian origin of Native American populations. Hum Biol 70: 23–29.
- Oden NL, Sokal RR. 1992. An investigation of three matrix permutation tests. J Classif 9: 275–290.
- O'Rourke DH, Mobarry A, Suarez BK. 1992. Patterns of genetic variation in Native America. Hum Biol 64: 417–434.
- Ossenberg NS. 1976. Within and between race distances in population studies based on discrete traits of the human skull. Am J Phys Anthropol 45: 701–716.
- Powell JF, Neves WA. 1999. Craniofacial morphology of the first Americans: pattern and process in the peopling of the New World. Yrbk Phys Anthropol 42: 153–158.
- Relethford JH. 1994. Craniometric variation among modern human populations. Am J Phys Anthropol 95: 53–62.
- Relethford JH. 1996. Genetic drift can obscure population history: problem and solution. Hum Biol 68: 29–44.
- Relethford JH. 1998. Rmet for Windows. Version 3.0. Oneonta, NY: SUNY College at Oneonta.
- Relethford JH, Blangero J. 1990. Detection of differential gene flow from patterns of quantitative variation. Hum Biol 62: 5–25.
- Relethford JH, Harpending HC. 1994. Craniometric variation, genetic theory and modern human origins. Am J Phys Anthropol 95: 249–257.
- Relethford JH, Crawford MH, Blangero JH. 1997. Genetic drift and gene-flow in post-famine Ireland. Hum Biol 69: 443–465. (1984)
- Rogers AR, Harpending HC. 1986. Migration and genetic drift in human populations. Evolution 40: 1312–1327.
- Roosevelt AC, Lima da Costa M, López Machado C, Michab M, Mercier N, Valladas H, Feathers J, Barnett W, Imazzio da Silveira M, Henderson A, Sliva J, Chernoff B, Reese DS, Holman JA, Toth N, Schick K. 1996. Paleoindian cave dwellers in the Amazon: the peopling of the Americas. Science 272: 373–384.
- Salzano FM, Callegari-Jacques SM. 1988. South American Indians: a case study in evolution. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Schanfield MS. 1992. Immunoglobulin allotypes (GM and KM) indicate multiple founding populations of Native Americans: evidence of at least four migrations to the New World. Hum Biol 64: 381–402.
- Schurr TG, Ballinger SW, Gan YY, Hodge JA, Merriwether DA, Lawrence DN, Knowler WC, Weiss KM, Wallace DC. 1990. Amerindian mitochondrial DNAs have a rare Asian mutations at high frequencies, suggesting they derived from four primary maternal lineages. Am J Hum Genet 46: 613–623.
- Smouse PE, Long JC. 1992. Matrix correlation analysis in anthropology and genetics. Yrbk Phys Anhtropol 35: 187–213.
- Smouse PE, Long JC, Sokal RR. 1986. Multiple regression and correlation extensions of the Mantel test matrix correspondence. Syst Zool 35: 627–632.
- Sokal RR. 1979. Testing statistical significance of geographic variation patterns. Syst Zool 28: 227–233.
- Sokal RR, Oden NL. 1978. Spatial autocorrelation in biology. 2: some biological implications and four applications of evolutionary and ecological interest. Biol J Linn Soc 10: 229–234.
-
Sokal RR,
Rohlf FJ.
1995.
Biometry. 3rd ed.
New York:
W.H. Freeman.
10.1577/1548-8659(1986)115<149:LOPDOR>2.0.CO;2 Google Scholar
- Sokal RR, Oden NL, Thomson BA. 1992. Origins of the Indo-Europeans: genetic evidence. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89: 7669–7673.
- Sokal RR, Oden NL, Walker J, Waddle DM. 1997. Using distance matrices to choose between competing theories and an application to the origin of modern humans. J Hum Evol 32: 501–522.
- Steele DG, Powell JF. 1992. Peopling of the Americas: paleobiological evidence. Hum Biol 64: 303–336.
-
Steele DG,
Powell JF.
1993.
Paleobiology of the first Americans.
Evol Anthropol
2:
138–146.
10.1002/evan.1360020409 Google Scholar
- Stone AC, Stoneking M. 1998. mtDNA analysis of a prehistoric Oneonta population: implications for the peopling of the New World. Am J Hum Genet 62: 1153–1170.
- Szathmáry EJE. 1979. Blood groups of Siberians, Eskimos, subarctic and Northwest Coast Indians: the problem of origin and genetic relationships. In: WS Laughlin, AB Harper, editors. The first Americans: origins, affinities and adaptations. New York: Gustav Fischer. p 185–209.
-
Szathmáry EJE.
1981.
Genetic markers in Siberian and northern North American populations.
Yrbk Phys Anthropol
24:
37–73.
10.1002/ajpa.1330240503 Google Scholar
- Szathmáry EJE. 1984. Peopling of northern North American: clues from genetic studies. Acta Anthropogenet 8: 79–109.
- Szathmáry EJE. 1993a. MtDNA and the peopling of the Americas. Am J Hum Genet 53: 793–799.
-
Szathmáry EJE.
1993b.
Genetics of aboriginal North Americans.
Evol Anthropol
1:
202–220.
10.1002/evan.1360010606 Google Scholar
- Szathmáry EJE, Ossenberg NS. 1978. Are the biological differences between North American Indians and Eskimos truly profound? Curr Anthropol 19: 673–701.
- Torroni A, Schurr TG, Cabell MF, Brown MD, Neel JV, Larsen M, Smith DG, Vullo CM, Wallace DC. 1993. Asian affinities and continental radiation of the four founding Native American mtDNAs. Am J Hum Genet 53: 563–590.
- Turner CG. 1987. Late Pleistocene and Holocene population history of East Asia based on dental variation. Am J Phys Anthropol 73: 305–321.
- Turner CG. 1992. Microevolution of East Asian and European populations: a dental perspective. In: T Akazawa, K Aoki, T Kimura, editors. The evolution and dispersal of modern humans in Asia. Tokyo: Hokusen-sha. p 414–438.
- Urbanek M, Goldman D, Long JC. 1996. The apportionment of dinucleotide repeat diversity in Native Americans and Europeans. a new approach to measuring gene identity reveals asymmetric patterns of divergence. Mol Biol Evol 13: 943–953.
- Waddle DM. 1994. Matrix correlation tests support a single origin for modern humans. Nature 368: 452–454.
- Waddle DM, Sokal RR, Rudan P. 1998. Factors affecting population variation in eastern Adriatic isolates (Croatia). Hum Biol 70: 845–864.
- Wallace DC, Torroni A. 1992. American Indian prehistory as written in the mitochondrial DNA: a review. Hum Biol 64: 403–416.
- Williams-Blangero S, Blangero J. 1989. Anthropometric variation and the genetic structure of the Jirels of Nepal. Hum Biol 61: 1–12.
- Wright S. 1943. Isolation by distance. Genetics 28: 114–138.
- Zago MA, Silva WA Jr, Tavella MH, Santos SEB, Guerreiro JF, Figueiredo MS. 1996. Interpopulational and intrapopulational genetic diversity of Amerindians as revealed by six variable number of tandem repeats. Hum Hered 46: 274–289.
