Infective Endocarditis
Michael H. Gewitz MD
Maria Fareri Children's Hospital, Valhalla, NY, USA
Department of Pediatrics, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, USA
Search for more papers by this authorKathryn A. Taubert PhD, FAHA
University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX, USA
World Heart Federation, Geneva, Switzerland
Search for more papers by this authorMichael H. Gewitz MD
Maria Fareri Children's Hospital, Valhalla, NY, USA
Department of Pediatrics, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, USA
Search for more papers by this authorKathryn A. Taubert PhD, FAHA
University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX, USA
World Heart Federation, Geneva, Switzerland
Search for more papers by this authorJames H. Moller MD
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
Search for more papers by this authorJulien I. E. Hoffman MD, FRCP
University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSummary
This chapter contains sections titled:
-
Introduction
-
Epidemiology
-
Pathogenesis
-
Microbiology
-
Diagnosis
-
Clinical features
-
Laboratory features
-
Echocardiography
-
Antimicrobial treatment
-
Prevention
-
Acknowledgment
-
References
References
- Ferrieri P, Gewitz MH, Gerber MA, et al. Unique features of infective endocarditis in childhood. Pediatrics 2002; 109: 931–43.
- Day MD, Gauvreau K, Shulman S, Newburger JW. Characteristics of children hospitalized with infective endocarditis. Circulation 2009; 119: 865–70.
- Zakrewski T, Keith JD. Bacterial endocarditis in infants and children. J Pediatr 1965; 67: 1179–93.
- Van Hare GF, Ben-Shachar G, Liebman J, et al. Infective endocarditis in infants and children during the past 10 years: a decade of change. Am Heart J 1984; 107: 1235–40.
- Berkowitz FE. Infective endocarditis. In: Nichols DG, Cameron DE, Greeley WJ, et al., eds. Critical Heart Disease in Infants and Children. St Louis, MO: Mosby-Year Book, 1995: 961–86.
- Oelberg DC, Fisher DJ, Gross DM, et al. Endocarditis in high risk neonates. Pediatrics 1983; 71: 392–7.
- Rodbard S. Blood velocity and endocarditis. Circulation 1963; 27: 18–28.
- Gould K, Ramirez-Ronda CH, Holmes RK, Sanford JP. Adherence of bacteria to heart valves in vitro. J Clin Invest 1975; 56: 1364–70.
- Scheld WM, Valone JA, Sande MA. Bacterial adherence in the pathogenesis of endocarditis: interaction of bacterial dextran, platelets, and fibrin. J Clin Invest 1978; 61: 1394–404.
- Sande MA, Lee BL, Mills J, Chambers HF. Endocarditis in intravenous drug users. In: Kaye D, ed. Infective Endocarditis, 2nd edn. New York: Raven Press, 1992: 345–59.
- Johnson DH, Rosenthal A, Nadas AS. A forty-year review of bacterial endocarditis in infancy and childhood. Circulation 1975; 51: 581–8.
- Martin JM, Neches WH, Wald ER. Infective endocarditis: 35 years of experience at a children's hospital. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 24: 669–75.
- Stockheim JA, Chadwick EG, Kessler S, et al. Are the Duke criteria superior to the Beth Israel criteria for the diagnosis of infective endocarditis in children? Clin Infect Dis 1998; 27: 1451–6.
- Douglas JL, Cobbs CG. Prosthetic valve endocarditis. In Kaye D, ed. Infective Endocarditis, 2nd edn. New York: Raven Press, 1992: 375–96.
- Seelig MS, Goldberg P, Kozinn PJ, Berger AR. Fungal endocarditis: patients at risk and their treatment. Postgrad Med J 1979; 55: 632–41.
- Moyer DV, Edwards JE. Fungal endocarditis. In Kaye D, ed. Infective Endocarditis, 2nd edn. New York: Raven Press, 1992: 299–312.
- Rubinstein E, Noreiga ER, Simberkoff MS, et al. Fungal endocarditis: analysis of twenty-four cases and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 1975; 54: 331–4.
- Gulmen S, Anderson WR. Candida endocarditis with distal aortic embolization. Minn Med 1977; 60: 469–71.
- Johnson DE, Base JL, Thompson TR, et al. Candida septicemia and a right atrial mass in infancy secondary to umbilical vein catheterization. Am J Dis Child 1981; 135: 275–7.
- Dato VM, Dajani AS. Candidemia in children with central venous catheters: role of catheter removal and amphotericin B therapy. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1990; 9: 309–14.
- Mayayo E, Moralejo J, Camps J, Guarro J. Fungal endocarditis in premature infants: case report and review. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 22: 366–8.
- Van Scoy RE. Culture-negative endocarditis. Mayo Clin Proc 1982; 57: 149–54.
- Durack DT, Lukes AS, Bright DK. New criteria for diagnosis of infective endocarditis: utilization of specific echocardiographic findings. Am J Med 1994; 96: 200–9.
- Bayer AS, Ward JL, Ginzton LE, Shapiro SM. Evaluation of new clinical criteria for the diagnosis of infective endocarditis. Am J Med 1994; 96: 211–9.
- Starkebaum M, Durack D, Beeson P. The “incubation period” of bacterial endocarditis. Yale J Biol Med 1977; 50: 49–58.
- Raoult D, Caslta JP, Richet H, et al. Contribution of systemic serological testing in diagnosis of infective endocarditis. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43: 5238–42.
- Kaye KM, Kaye D. Laboratory findings including blood cultures. In Kaye D, ed. Infective Endocarditis, 2nd edn. New York: Raven Press, 1992: 117–124.
- Baddour LM, Wilson WR, Bayer AS, et al. Infective endocarditis: diagnosis, antimicrobial therapy and management of complications: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki disease, Council of Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, and the Councils on Clinical Cardiology, Stroke, and Cardiovascular. Surgery and Anesthesia, American Heart Association; endorsed by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Circulation 2005; 111: e394–434.
- Hoen B, Selton-Suty C, Lacassin F, et al. Infective endocarditis in patients with negative blood cultures: analysis of 88 cases from a one-year nationwide survey in France. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 20: 501–6.
- Roberts KB, Sidlak MJ. Satellite streptococci: a major cause of negative blood cultures in bacterial endocarditis? JAMA 1979; 241: 2293–4.
- Bayer AS, Theofilopoulos AN, Eisenberg R, et al. Circulating immune complexes in infective endocarditis. N Engl J Med 1976; 295: 1500–5.
- Kauffman RH, Thompson J, Valentijn RM, et al. The clinical implications and the pathogenetic significance of circulating immune complexes in infective endocarditis. Am J Med 1981; 71: 17–25.
- Aragam JR, Weyman AE. Echocardiographic findings in infective endocarditis. In: Weyman AE, ed. Principles and Practice of Echocardiography, 2nd edn. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1994: 1178–97.
- Saiman L, Prince A, Gersony WM. Pediatric infective endocarditis in the modern era. J Pediatr 1993; 122: 847–53.
- Dillon T, Meyer RA, Korfhagen JC, et al. Management of infective endocarditis using echocardiography. J Pediatr 1980; 96: 552–8.
- Kavey REW, Frank DM, Byrum CJ, et al. Two-dimensional echocardiographic assessment of infective endocarditis in children. Am J Dis Child 1983; 137: 851–6.
- Bricker JT, Latson LA, Huhta JC, Gutgesell HP. Echocardiographic evaluation of infective endocarditis in children. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1985; 24: 312–7.
- Sable CA, Rome JJ, Martin GR, et al. Indications for echocardiography in the diagnosis of infective endocarditis in children. Am J Cardiol 1995; 75: 801–4.
- Cheitlin MD, Alpert JS, Armstrong WF, et al. ACC/AHA Guidelines for the clinical application of echocardiography: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Clinical Application of Echocardiography). Circulation 1997; 95: 1686–744.
- Cheitlin MD, Armstrong WF, Aurigemma, GP, et al. ACC/AHA/ASE 2003 Guideline update for the clinical application of echo-cardiography: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practical Guidelines (ACC/AHA/ASE Committee) to Update the 1997 Guidelines for the Clinical Application of Echocardiography. Circulation 2003; 108;1146–62.
- Durack DT, Beeson PB. Experimental bacterial endocarditis. I. Colonization of a sterile vegetation. Br J Exp Pathol 1972; 53: 44–9.
- Durack DT, Beeson PB. Experimental bacterial endocarditis. II. Survival of bacteria in endocardial vegetations. Br J Exp Pathol 1972; 53: 50–3.
- Baldassarre JS, Kaye D. Principles and overview of antibiotic therapy. In Kaye D, ed. Infective Endocarditis, 2nd edn. New York: Raven Press, 1992: 169–90.
- Sande MA, Irvin RG. Penicillin–aminoglycoside synergy in experimental Streptococcus viridans endocarditis. J Infect Dis 1974; 129: 572–6.
- Wolfe JC, Johnson WD Jr. Penicillin-sensitive streptococcal endocarditis: in vitro and clinical observations on penicillin– streptomycin therapy. Ann Intern Med 1974; 81: 178–81.
- Tice AD, Rehm SJ, Dalovisio JR, et al. Practice guidelines for outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy. IDSA Guidelines. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 38: 1651–72.
- Santoro J, Ingerman M. Response to therapy: relapses and reinfections. In Kaye D, ed. Infective Endocarditis, 2nd edn. New York: Raven Press, 1992: 423–33.
- Douglas JL, Dismukes WE. Surgical therapy of infective endocarditis on natural valves. In Kaye D, ed. Infective Endocarditis, 2nd edn. New York: Raven Press, 1992: 397–411.
- Citak M, Rees A, Mavroudis C. Surgical management of infective endocarditis in children. Ann Thorac Surg 1992; 54: 755–760.
- Tolan RW Jr, Kleiman MB, Frank M, et al. Operative intervention in active endocarditis in children: report of a series of cases and review. Clin Infect Dis 1992; 14: 852–62.
- Wilson W, Karchmer AW, Dajani AS, et al. Antibiotic treatment of adults with infective endocarditis due to streptococci, enterococci, staphylococci, and HACEK microorganisms. JAMA 1995; 274: 1706–13.
- Karchmer AW, Moellering RC Jr, Maki DG, et al. Single-antibiotic therapy for streptococcal endocarditis. JAMA 1979; 241: 1801–6.
- Francioli P, Etienne J, Hoigne R, et al. Treatment of streptococcal endocarditis with a single daily dose of ceftriaxone sodium for 4 weeks: efficacy and outpatient treatment feasibility. JAMA 1992; 267: 264–7.
- Wilson WR, Thompson RL, Wilkowske CJ, et al. Short-term therapy for streptococcal infective endocarditis: combined intramuscular administration of penicillin and streptomycin. JAMA 1981; 245: 360–3.
- Sande MA, Scheld WM. Combination antibiotic therapy of bacterial endocarditis. Ann Intern Med 1980; 92: 390–5.
- Eliopoulos GM. Enterococcal endocarditis. In Kaye D, ed. Infective Endocarditis, 2nd edn. New York: Raven Press, 1992: 209–23.
- Eliopoulos GM. Aminoglycoside resistant enterococcal endocarditis. Med Clin North Am 1993; 17: 117–33.
- Karchmer AW, Gibbons GW. Infection of prosthetic heart valves and vascular grafts. In: Bisno AL, Waldvogel FA, eds. Infections Associated with Indwelling Medical Devices, 2nd edn. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology, 1994: 213–49.
- Fowler VG Jr, Miro JM, Hoen B, et al., ICE Investigators. Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis: a consequence of medical progress. JAMA 2005; 293: 3012–21.
- Geraci JE, Wilson WR. Symposium on infective endocarditis. III. Endocarditis due to Gram-negative bacteria: report of 56 cases. Mayo Clin Proc 1982; 57: 145–8.
- Pesanti EL, Smith IM. Infective endocarditis with negative blood cultures: an analysis of 52 cases. Am J Med 1979; 66: 43–50.
- Durack DT. Prevention of infective endocarditis. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 38–44.
- Gould FK, Elliott TSJ, Foweraker J, et al. Guidelines for the prevention of endocarditis: report of the Working Party of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006; 57: 1035–42.
- Wilson WR, Taubert KA, Gewitz MH, et al. Prevention of infective endocarditis: guidelines from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2007; 116: 1736–54.
- Richey R, Wray D, Stokes T. Prophylaxis against infective endocarditis. Summary of the NICE (National Institute for Clinical Excellence) Guidance. Br Med J 2008; 336: 770–1.
- Habib G, Hoen B, Tornos P, et al. Guidelines on the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of infective endocarditis (new version 2009). The Task Force on the Prevention, Diagnosis and Treatment of Infective Endocarditis of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J 2009; 30: 2369–413.
- Fowler VG, Moro JM, Hoen G, et al. ICE Investigators. Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis: a consequence of medical progress JAMA 2005; 293: 3012–21.
Further reading
- American Heart Association. 1997 Heart and Stroke Statistical Update. Dallas, TX: American Heart Association, 1997: 18.
- Awadallah SM, Kavey R-EW, Byrum CJ, et al. The changing pattern of infective endocarditis in childhood. Am J Cardiol 1991; 68: 90–4.
- Baltimore RS. Infective endocarditis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1992; 11: 907–12.
- Berkowitz FE, Dansky R. Infective endocarditis in black South African children: report of 10 cases with some unusual features. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1989; 8: 787–91.
- Bhandari S, Kaul U, Shrivastava S, et al. Infective endocarditis in children. Indian J Pediatr 1984; 51: 529–32.
- Blumenthal S, Griffiths SP, Morgan BC. Bacterial endocarditis in children with heart disease: a review based on the literature and experience with 58 cases. Pediatrics 1960; 26: 993–1017.
- Dodo H, Child JS. Infective endocarditis in congenital heart disease. Cardiol Clin 1996; 14: 383–92.
- Hugo-Hamman CT, de Moor MM, Human DG. Infective endocarditis in South African children. J Trop Pediatr 1989; 35: 154–8.
- Johnson CM, Rhodes KH. Pediatric endocarditis. Mayo Clin Proc 1982; 57: 86–94.
- Kramer HH, Bourgenis M, Liersch R, et al. Current clinical aspects of bacterial endocarditis in infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Eur J Pediatr 1983; 140: 253–9.
- Millard DD, Shulman ST. The changing spectrum of neonatal endocarditis. Clin Perinatol 1988; 15: 587–608.
- Moethilalh R, Coovadia HM. Infective endocarditis in thirteen children: a retrospective study (1974–1981). Ann Trop Paediatr 1982; 2: 57–62.
- Noel GJ, O'Loughlin JE, Edelson PJ. Neonatal Staphylococcus epidermidis right-sided endocarditis: description of five catheterized infants. Pediatrics 1988; 82: 234–9.
- Normand J, Bozio A, Etienne J, et al. Changing patterns and prognosis of infective endocarditis in childhood. Eur Heart J 1995; 16(Suppl B): 28–31.
- Somers K, Patel AK, Steiner I, et al. Infective endocarditis: an African experience. Br Heart J 1972; 34: 1107–12.