Chapter 6
The Roles of Environment, Experience, and Learning in Behavioral Development
George F. Michel,
George F. Michel
University of North Carolina at Greensboro, USA
Search for more papers by this authorGeorge F. Michel,
George F. Michel
University of North Carolina at Greensboro, USA
Search for more papers by this authorBook Editor(s):Kathryn E. Hood, Carolyn Tucker Halpern,
Gary Greenberg, Richard M. Lerner,
Carolyn Tucker Halpern
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSummary
This chapter contains sections titled:
-
Organism-Environment Transaction in Behavioral Development
-
Epigenetics and Ecological Influences in Developmental Biology
-
The Concept of Environment
-
The Umwelt in Behavioral Development
-
The Role of Experience in Development
-
Learning and Behavioral Development
-
Environment, Experience, Learning and the Questions about Behavioral Development
-
References
References
- Abel, E. L., Moore, C., Waselewsky, D., Zajac, C., & Russell, L. D. (1989). Effects of cocaine hydrochloride on reproductive function and sexual behavior of male rats and on the behavior of their offspring. Journal of Andrology, 10(1), 17–27.
- Anway, M. D., Cupp, A. S., Uzumcu, M., & Skinner, M. K. (2005). Epigenetic transgenerational actions of endocrine disruptors and male fertility. Science, 308, 1466–1469.
- Anway, M. D., & Skinner, M. K. (2006). Epigenetic transgenerational actions of endocrine disruptors. Endocrinology, 147(6), 43–49.
- Avishai-Eliner, S., Eghbal-Ahmadi, M., Tabachnik, E., Brunson, K. L., & Baram, T. Z. (2001). Down-regulation of hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) precedes early-life experience induced changes in hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor mRNA. Endocrinology, 142, 89–97.
- Beecher, M. D., Burt, J. M., O'Lloghlen, A. L., Tempelton, C. N., & Campbell, S. E. (2007). Bird song learning in an eavesdropping context. Animal Behavior, 73(6), 929–935.
- Blumberg, M. S. (2005). Basic instinct: The genesis of behavior. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press.
- Blumberg, M. S. (2008). Freaks of nature: What anomalies tell us about development and evolution. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Boccia, M. L., & Pedersen, C. A. (2001). Brief vs. long maternal separations in infancy: Contrasting relationships with adult maternal behavior and lactation levels of aggression and anxiety. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 26, 657–672.
- Bredy, T. W., Grant, R. J., Champagne, D. L., & Meaney, M. J. (2003). Maternal care influences neuronal survival in the hippocampus of the rat. European Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 2903–2909.
- Brenowitz, E. A., & Beecher, M. D. (2005). Song learning in birds: Diversity and plasticity, opportunities and challenges. Trends in Neuroscience, 28(3), 127–132.
- Brunjes, P. C., & Frazier, L. L. (1986). Maturation and plasticity in the olfactory system. Brain Research Reviews, 11, 1–45.
- Bull, J. J. (1983). Evolution of sex determining mechanisms. Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cummings.
- Caldji, C., Diorio, J., & Meaney, M. J. (2003). Variations in maternal care alter GABA(A) receptor subunit expression in brain regions associated with fear. Neuropsychopharmacology, 28, 1950–1959.
- Caldji, C., Francis, D., Sharma, S., Plotsky, P. M., & Meaney, M. J. (2000). The effects of early rearing environment on the development of GABAA and central benzodiazepine receptor levels and novelty-induced fearfulness in the rat. Neuropsychopharmacology, 22, 219–229.
- Caldji, C., Tannenbaum, B., Sharma, S., Francis, D., Plotsky, P. M., & Meaney, M. J. (1998). Maternal care during infancy regulates the development of neural systems mediating the expression of fearfulness in the rat. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 95, 5335–5340.
- Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., et al. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297(5582), 851–854.
- Champagne, F. A. (2008). Epigenetic mechanisms and the transgenerational effects of maternal care. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 29, 386–397.
- Champagne, F. A., Chretien, P., Stevenson, C. W., Zhang, T. Y., Gratton, A., & Meaney, M. J. (2004). Variations in nucleus accumbens dopamine associated with individual differences in maternal behavior in the rat. Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 4113–4123.
- Champagne, F. A., Francis, D. D., Mar, A., & Meaney, M. J. (2003). Variations in maternal care in the rat as a mediating influence for the effects of environment on development. Physiology and Behavior, 79, 359–371.
- Champagne, F. A., Weaver, I. C., Diorio, J., Dymov, S., Szyf, M., & Meaney, M. J. (2006). Maternal care associated with methylation of the estrogen recCeptor-alpha1b promoter and estrogen receptor-alpha expression in the medial preoptic area of female offspring. Endocrinology, 147, 2909–2915.
- Cheng, M. -F. (2003). Vocal self-stimulation: From the ring dove story to emotion-based vocal communication. In P. J. B. Slater, J. S. Rosenblatt, C. T. Snowdon, & T. J. Roper (Eds.), Advances in the study of behavior, Vol. 33, (pp. 309–353). New York: Academic Press.
- Coopersmith, R., & Leon, M. (1988). The neurobiology of early olfactory learning. In E. M. Blass (Ed.), Handbook of behavioral neurobiology. Vol. 9. Developmental psychobiology. New York: Plenum.
- Crandall, S. R., Aoki, N., & Nick, T. A. (2007). Developmental modulation of the temporal relationship between brain and behavior. Journal of Neurophysiology, 97, 806–816.
-
Day, L., & Bentley, M. (1911). A note on learning in Paramecium. Journal of Animal Behavior, 1, 67–73.
10.1037/h0071290 Google Scholar
- Day, N. F., Kinnischtzke, A. K., Adam, M., & Nick, T. A. (2008). Top-down regulation of plasticity in the birdsong system: “Premotor” activity in the nucleus HVC predicts song variability better than it predicts song features. Journal of Neurophysiology, 100, 2956–2965.
- de Beer, G. (1930). Embryology and evolution. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- de Beer, G. R. (1958). Embryos and ancestors ( 3rd ed.). London: Oxford University Press.
- Demski, L. S. (1987). Diversity in reproductive patterns and behavior in teleost fishes. In D. Crews (Ed.), Psychobiology of reproductive behavior: An evolutionary perspective (pp. 1–27). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
- Dolinoy, D. C., Weidman, J. R., & Jirtle, R. L. (2007). Epigenetic gene regulation: Linking early developmental environment to adult disease. Reproductive Toxicology, 23(3), 297–307.
- Fenoglio, K. A., Brunson, K. L., Avishai-Eliner, S., Chen, Y., & Baram, T. Z. (2004). Region-specific onset of handling induced changes in corticotropin-releasing factor and glucocorticoid receptor expression. Endocrinology, 145, 2702–2706.
- Fernández-Teruel, A., Escorihuela, R. M., Driscoll, P., Tobeña, A., & Battig, K. (1991). Infantile (handling) stimulation and behavior in young Roman high- and low-avoidance rats. Physiology & Behavior, 50, 563–565.
- Fleming, A. S., Kraemer, G. W., Gonzalez, A., Lovic, V., Rees, S., & Melo, A. (2002). Mothering begets mothering: The transmission of behavior and its neurobiology across generations. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 73, 61–75.
-
Fox Keller, E. (2002). Making sense of life: Explaining biological development with models, metaphors and machines. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
10.4159/9780674039445 Google Scholar
- Francis, D. D., Caldji, C., Champagne, F., Plotsky, P. M., & Meaney, M. J. (1999). The role of corticotropin-releasing factor – norepinephrine systems in mediating the effects of early experience on the development of behavioral and endocrine responses to stress. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 1153–1166.
- Francis, D. D., Diorio, J., Liu, D., & Meaney, M. J. (1999). Nongenomic transmission across generations of maternal behavior and stress responses in the rat. Science, 286, 1155–1158.
- Gerhart, J., & Kirschner, M. (1997). Cells, embryos, and evolution: Toward a cellular and developmental understanding of phenotypic variation and evolutionary adaptability. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science.
- Gerstein, M. B., Can, B., Rozowsky, J. S., Zheng, D., Jiang, D., Korbel, J. O., et al. (2007). What is a gene, post-ENCODE? History and updated definition. Genome Research, 17, 669–681.
- Gilbert, S. F. (2001). Ecological developmental biology: Developmental biology meets the real world. Developmental Biology, 233, 1–12.
-
Gilbert, S. F. (2006). The generation of novelty: The province of developmental biology. Biological Theory, 1(2), 209–212.
10.1162/biot.2006.1.2.209 Google Scholar
- Gilbert, S. F., & Epel, D. (2009). Ecological developmental biology. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer.
- Gore, A. C. (2008). Developmental programming and endocrine disruptor effects on reproductive neuroendocrine systems. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 29(3), 358–374.
- Gorski, R. A., Gordon, J. H., Shryne, J. E., & Southam, A. M. (1978). Evidence for a morphological sex difference within the medial preoptic area of the brain. Brain Research, 148, 333–346.
- Gottlieb, G. (1971). Development of species identification in birds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Gottlieb, G. (1976). The roles of experience in the development of behavior and the nervous system. In G. Gottlieb (Ed.), Studies in the development of behavior and the nervous system. Vol. 3. Neural and behavioral specificity (pp. 25–54). New York: Academic Press.
- Gottlieb, G. (1992). Individual development and evolution: The genesis of novel behavior. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Gottlieb, G. (1999). Probabilistic epigenesis and evolution. Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.
- Gould, S. J. (1977). Ontogeny and phylogeny. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Gubernick, D. J., & Alberts, J. R. (1983). Maternal licking of young: Resource exchange and proximate controls. Physiology and Behavior, 31, 593–601.
- Gubernick, D. J., & Alberts, J. R. (1985). Maternal licking by virgin and lactating rats: Water transfer from pups. Physiology and Behavior, 34, 501–506.
- Hatalski, C. G., Guirguis, C., & Baram, T. Z. (1998). Corticotropin releasing factor mRNA expression in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus and the central nucleus of the amygdala is modulated by repeated acute stress in the immature rat. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 10, 663–669.
- Hessler, N. A., & Doupe, A. J. (1999). Social context modulates singing-related neural activity in the songbird forebrain. Nature Neuroscience, 2(3), 209–211.
-
Hill, D. L. (2001). Taste development. In E. M. Blass (Ed.), Handbook of behavioral neurobiology. Vol. 13: Developmental psychobiology (pp. 517–550). New York: Kluwer/Plenum.
10.1007/978-1-4615-1209-7_14 Google Scholar
- R. A. Hinde, J. Hinde (Eds.) (1973). Constraints on learning. New York: Academic Press.
- Hirsch, H. V. B., Tieman, S. B., Barth, M., & Ghiradella, H. (2001). Tunable seers: Activity dependent development of vision in fly and cat. In Blass E. M. (Ed.), Handbook of behavioral neurobiology, Vol. 13: Developmental Psychobiology (pp. 81–141). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
- Ho, S. M., & Tang, W. Y. (2007). Techniques used in studies of epigenome dysregulation due to aberrant DNA methylation: An emphasis on fetal-based adult diseases. Reproductive Toxicology, 23(3), 267–282.
- Huot, R. L., Gonzalez, M. E., Ladd, C. O., Thrivikraman, K. V., & Plotsky, P. M. (2004). Foster litters prevent hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis sensitization mediated by neonatal maternal separation. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 279–289.
- Huot, R. L., Thrivikraman, K. V., Meaney, M. J., & Plotsky, P. M. (2001). Development of adult ethanol preference and anxiety as a consequence of neonatal maternal separation in Long Evans rats and reversal with antidepressant treatment. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 158, 366–373.
-
Impekoven, M., & Gold, P. S. (1973). Prenatal origins of parent-young interactions in birds: A naturalistic approach. In G. Gottlieb (Ed.), Behavioral embryology, Vol. 1: Studies on the development of behavior and the nervous system (pp. 325–356). New York: Academic Press.
10.1016/B978-0-12-609301-8.50018-0 Google Scholar
- Jablonka, E., & Lamb, M. J. (2005). Evolution in four dimensions. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
- Jaffee, S. R., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Dodge, K. A., Rutter, M., Taylor, A., et al. (2005). Nature × Nurture: Genetic vulnerabilities interact with child maltreatment to promote conduct problems. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 67–84.
- Jirtle, R. L., & Skinner, M. K. (2007). Environmental epigenomics and disease susceptibility. Nature Reviews Genetics, 8(4), 253–262.
- Johannsen, W. (1909). Elemente der exacten Erblichkeitslehre. Jena: Gustav Fischer.
- Johannsen, W. (1911). The genotype conceptionof heredity. American Naturalist, 45, 129–159.
- Kirschner, M. W., & Gerhart, J. C. (2006). The plausibility of life: Resolving Darwin's dilemma. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
- Kojima, S., & Doupe, A. J. (2008). Neural encoding of auditory temporal context in a songbird basal ganglia nucleus, and its independence of birds' song experience. European Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 1231–1244.
- Lee, M. H. S., & Williams, D. I. (1974). Changes in licking behavior of rat mothers following handling of young. Animal Behaviour, 22, 679–681.
- Lehmann, J., & Feldon, J. (2000). Long-term biobehavioral effects of maternal separation in the rat: Consistent or confusing? Reviews in the Neurosciences, 11, 383–408.
- Lehrman, D. S. (1965). Interaction between internal and external environments in the regulation of the reproductive cycle of the ring dove. In F. A. Beach (Ed.), Sex and behavior (pp. 355–380). New York: Wiley.
- Levine, S. (1957). Infantile experience and resistance to physiological stress. Science, 126, 405.
-
Levine, S. (2002). Enduring effects of early experience in adult behavior. In: D. W. Pfaff, A. P. Arnold, A. M. Etgen, S. E. Fahrbach, & R. T. Rubin, (Eds.), Hormones, brain and behavior, Vol. 4 (pp. 535–542). New York: Academic Press.
10.1016/B978-012532104-4/50075-5 Google Scholar
- Lewontin, R. C. (1982). Organism and environment. In H. C. Plotkin (Ed.), Learning, development, and culture: Essays in evolutionary epistemology (pp. 151–172). New York: Wiley.
- Liu, D., Caldji, C., Sharma, S., Plotsky, P. M., & Meaney, M. J. (2000). Influence of neonatal rearing conditions on stress-induced adrenocorticotropin responses and norepinepherine release in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 12, 5–12.
- Liu, D., Diorio, J., Tannenbaum, B., Caldji, C., Francis, D., Freedman, A., et al. (1997). Maternal care, hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors, and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal responses to stress. Science, 277, 1659–1662.
- Lorenz, K. (1937). The conception of instinctive behavior. In C. H. Schiller (Ed. and Trans.), (1957). Instinctive behavior: The development of a modern concept. New York: International Universities Press.
- Lorenz, K. (1965). The evolution and modification of behavior. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
- Lussana, F., Painter, R. C., Ocke, M. C., Buller, H. R., Bossuyt, P. M., & Roseboom, T. J. (2008). Prenatal exposure to the Dutch famine is associated with a preference for fatty foods and a more atherogenic lipid profile. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 88, 1648–1652.
- Ma, X., Buffler, P. A., Gunier, R. B., Dahl, G., Smith, M. T., Reinier, K., et al. (2002). Critical windows of exposure to household pesticides and risk of childhood leukemia. Environmental Health Perspectives, 110(9), 955–960.
- Meaney, M. J. (2001). Maternal care, gene expression, and the transmission of individual differences in stress reactivity across generations. Annual Review Neuroscience, 24, 1161–1192.
- Meaney, M. J., & Szyf, M. (2005). Maternal care as a model for experience-dependent chromatin plasticity? Trends in Neuroscience, 28, 456–463.
-
Meaney, M. J., Tannenbaum, B., Francis, D., Bhatnager, S., Shanks, N., Viau, V., et al. (1994). Early environmental programming hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses to stress. Seminars in the Neurosciences, 6, 247–259.
10.1006/smns.1994.1032 Google Scholar
- Meaney, M. J., Viau, V., Aitken, D. H., & Bhatnagar, S. (1989). Glucocorticoid receptors in brain and pituitary of the lactating rat. Physiology & Behavior, 45, 209–212.
- Meitzen, J., Thompson, C. K., Choi, H., Perkel, D. J., & Brenowitz, E. A. (2009). Time course of changes in Gambel's white-crowned sparrow song behavior following transitions in breeding condition. Hormones and Behavior, 55, 217–227.
- Mennella, J. A., Ziegler, P., Briefel, R., & Novak, T. (2006). Feeding infants and toddlers study: The types of foods fed to Hispanic infants and toddlers. Journal of American Diet Association, 106, (1 Suppl 1 ), 96–106.
- Michel, G. F. (1986). Experiential influences on hormonally dependent ring dove parental care. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 474, 158–165.
- Michel, G. F. (2001). Growth curve analyses are best suited to examine the relation between developmental pathways and selective breeding. Developmental Psychobiology, 39(4), 247–250.
- Michel, G. F. (2007). Doing what comes naturally: The role of self generated experience in behavioral development. European Journal of Developmental Science, 1, 152–161.
- Michel, G. F. (in press). Behavioral science, engineering, and poetry revisited. Journal of Comparative Psychology.
-
Michel, G. F., & Moore, C. L. (1995). Developmental psychobiology: An interdisciplinary science. MIT Press: Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
10.7551/mitpress/2392.001.0001 Google Scholar
- Michel, G. F., & Tyler, A. N. (2005). Critical period: A history of the transition from questions of when, to what, to how. Developmental Psychobiology, 46(3), 156–162.
- Michel, G. F., & Tyler, A. N. (2007a). Can knowledge of developmental processes illuminate the evolution of parental care? Developmental Psychobiology, 49(1), 33–44.
- Michel, G. F., & Tyler, A. N. (2007b). Developing human nature: “Development to” vs. “Development from.” Developmental Psychobiology, 49(8), 788–799.
- Moore, C. L. (1982). Maternal behavior of rats is affected by hormonal condition of pups. Journal of Comparative & Physiological Psychology, 96, 123–129.
- Moore, C. L. (1984). Maternal contributions to the development of masculine sexual behavior in laboratory rats. Developmental Psychobiology, 17, 347–356.
- Moore, C. L. (1985). Sex differences in urinary odors produced by young laboratory rats (Rattus norvegicus). Journal of Comparative & Physiological Psychology, 99, 336–341.
- Moore, C. L. (1992). The role of maternal stimulation in the development of sexual behavior and its neural basis. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 662, 160–177.
- Moore, C. L., & Chadwick-Dias, A. M. (1986). Behavioral responses of infant rats to maternal licking: Variations with age and sex. Developmental Psychobiology, 19, 427–438.
- Moore, C. L., Dou, H., & Juraska, J. M. (1992). Maternal stimulation affects the number of motor neurons in a sexually dimorphic nucleus of the lumbar spinal cord. Brain Research, 572, 52–56.
- Moore, C. L., & Morelli, G. A. (1979). Mother rats interact differently with male and female offspring. Journal of Comparative & Physiological Psychology, 93, 677–684.
- Moore, C. L., & White, R. H. (1996). Sex differences in sensory and motor branches of the pudendal nerve of the rat. Hormones and Behavior, 30, 590–599.
-
Moore, C. L., Wong, L., Daum, M. C., & Leclair, O. U. (1997). Mother-infant interactions in two strains of rats: Implications for dissociating mechanism and function of a maternal pattern. Developmental Psychobiology, 30, 301–312.
10.1002/(SICI)1098-2302(199705)30:4<301::AID-DEV4>3.0.CO;2-S CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
- Núñez, J. F., Ferré, P., García, E., Escorihuela, R. M., Fernández-Teruel, A., & Tobeña, A. (1995). Postnatal handling reduces emotionality ratings and accelerates two way active avoidance in female rats. Physiology & Behavior, 57, 831–835.
- Parfitt, D. B., Levin, J. K., Saltstein, K. P., Klayman, A. S., Greer, L. M., & Helmreich, D. L. (2004). Differential early rearing environments can accentuate or attenuate the responses to stress in male C57BL/6 mice. Brain Research, 1016, 111–118.
- Patisaul, H. P., and Adewale, H. B. (2009). Long-term effects of environmental endocrine disruptors on reproductive physiology and behavior. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 3(10), 1–18.
- Phoenix, C. H., Goy, R. W., Gerall, A. A., & Young, W. C. (1959). Organizing action of prenatally administered testosterone propionate on the tissues mediating mating behavior in the female guinea pig. Endocrinology, 65, 369–382.
- Plotsky, P. M., & Meaney, M. J. (1993). Early, postnatal experience alters hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) mRNA, median eminence CRF content and stress induced release in adult rats. Molecular Brain Research, 18, 195–200.
- Plotsky, P. M., Thrivikraman, K. V., Nemeroff, C. B., Caldji, C., Sharma, S., & Meaney, M. J. (2005). Long-term consequences of neonatal rearing on central corticotrophin releasing factor systems in adult male rat offspring. Neuropsychopharmacology, 30, 2192–2204.
-
Raff, R. A. (1996). The shape of life. Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press.
10.7208/chicago/9780226256573.001.0001 Google Scholar
- Rovee-Collier, C. (2001). Information pick-up by infants: What is it, and how can we tell? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 78, 35–49.
- Sapolsky, R. M., Meaney, M. J., & McEwen, B. S. (1985). The development of the glucocorticoid receptor system in the rat limbic brain. III. Negative-feedback regulation. Brain Research, 350, 169–173.
- Schlichting, C. D., & Pigliucci, M. (1998). Phenotypic evolution: A reaction norm perspective. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
- Schneirla, T. C. (1966). Behavioral development and comparative psychology. Quarterly Review of Biology, 41, 283–302.
- Shapiro, D. Y. (1983). Distinguishing behavioral interactions from visual cues as causes of adult sex change in coral reef fish. Hormones and Behavior, 17, 424–432.
-
Singer, J. D., & Willett, J. B. (2003). Applied longitudinal data analysis: Modeling change and event occurance. New York: Oxford University Press.
10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195152968.001.0001 Google Scholar
- Sullivan, R. M., Shokrai, N., & Leon, M. (1988). Physical stimulation reduces the body temperature of infant rats. Developmental Psychobiology, 21, 225–235.
- Sullivan, R. M., Wilson, D. A., & Leon, M. (1988). Physical stimulation reduces the brain temperature of infant rats. Developmental Psychobiology, 21, 237–250.
- Tyler, A. N. (2006). When is a description not an explanation: A response to Armstrong et al. (2006). Developmental Psychobiology, 48(4), 332–335.
- von Uexkuell, J. (1957). A stroll through the world of animals and men. In C. H. Schiller (Ed. & Trans.) Instinctive behavior (pp. 5–80). New York: International Universities Press.
- Vince, M. A. (1974). Some environmental effects on the activity and development of the avian embryo. In G. Gottlieb (Ed.), Behavioral embryology, Vol. 1: Studies on the development of behavior and the nervous system (pp. 285–323). New York: Academic Press.
- Walker, C. -D Naef, L., Xu, S., Long, H., Moquin, L., Srivastava, L., et al. 2007. Perinatal high fat feeding of the mother induces long-term changes in the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system of rat offspring. paper presented at the 3rd Annual Parental Brain Conference, Boston, MA.
- Weaver, I. C., Diorio, J., Seckl, J. R., Szyf, M., & Meaney, M. J. (2004). Early environmental regulation of hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor gene expression: Characterization of intracellular mediators and potential genomic target sites. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1024, 182–212.
- Weaver, I. C., Grant, R. J., & Meaney, M. J. (2002). Maternal behavior regulates long-term hippocampal expression of BAX and apoptosis in the offspring. Journal of Neurochemistry, 82, 998–1002.
-
West, M. J., King, A. P., & Arberg, A. A. (1988). The inheritance of niches: The role of ecological legacies in ontogeny. In E. M. Blass (Ed.), Handbook of behavioral neurobiology, Vol. 9: Developmental psychobiology and behavioral ecology (pp. 41–62). New York: Plenum.
10.1007/978-1-4684-5421-5_2 Google Scholar
- West-Eberhard, M. J. (2003). Developmental plasticity and evolution. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Wheelwright, N. T., Swett, M. B., Levin, I. I., Kroodsma, D. E., Freeman-Gallant, C. R., & Williams, H., (2008). The influence of different tutor types on song learning in a natural bird population. Animal Behaviour, 75, 1479–1493.
- Williams, H. (2004). Birdsong and singing behavior. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1016, 1–30.
- Wilson, D. A., Fletcher, M. L., & Sullivan, R. M. (2004). Acetylcholine and olfactory perceptual learning. Learning and Memory, 11, 28–34.
- Zeigler H. P., & Marler P. (Eds.) (2004). Behavioral neurobiology of birdsong. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1016.