Mesial temporal lobe surgery and other lobar resections
James Leiphart
Inova Department of Neurosciences and Virginia Commonwealth University, Falls Church, VA, USA
Search for more papers by this authorItzhak Fried
University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA and Tel-Aviv Medical Center and Tel-Aviv University, Israel
Search for more papers by this authorJames Leiphart
Inova Department of Neurosciences and Virginia Commonwealth University, Falls Church, VA, USA
Search for more papers by this authorItzhak Fried
University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA and Tel-Aviv Medical Center and Tel-Aviv University, Israel
Search for more papers by this authorSimon Shorvon MA MB BChir MD FRCP
Professor in Clinical Neurology and Consultant Neurologist
UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
Search for more papers by this authorEmilio Perucca MD PhD FRCP(Edin)
Professor of Medical Pharmacology and Director, Clinical Trial Center
Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Department of Internal Medicine and Therapeutics University of Pavia, C. Mondino National Neurological Institute Pavia, Italy
Search for more papers by this authorJerome Engel Jr. MD PhD
Jonathan Sinay Distinguished Professor of Neurology and Director UCLA Seizure Disorder Center
Neurobiology, and Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSummary
Temporal lobe and other lobar surgeries for epilepsy have a long history, are well established and have shown better seizure outcome and decreased complication rates over time and with more experience in epilepsy centres. This chapter discusses the work-up, efficacy and potential complications of temporal and other lobar resections for the control of epileptic seizures. Epilepsy surgery outcomes vary according to the location and pathology of the seizures. Medial temporal lobectomy has better reported postoperative seizure control rates than the other neocortical surgeries. Medial temporal resection represents surgery that is fundamentally different from neocortical epilepsy surgery in that it encompasses a standardized approach based on the understanding of a well-defined syndrome and pathophysiology; therefore it may have a more favourable prognosis. The discussion of seizure outcomes will be organized based on location, with medial temporal lobectomy being discussed separately from the neocortical resection outcomes.
References
- Penfield W, Jasper H. Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy of the Human Brain. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1954.
10.1097/00007611-195407000-00024 Google Scholar
- Penfield W, Lende RA, Rasmussen T. Manipulation hemiplegia: an untoward complication in the surgery of focal epilepsy. J Neurosurg 1961; 18: 760–776.
- Babb TL, Brown WJ, Pretorius J, Davenport C, Lieb JP, Crandall PH. Temporal lobe volumetric cell densities in temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia 1984; 25: 729–740.
- Milner B. The medial temporal-lobe amnesic syndrome. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2005; 28: 599–611.
- Spencer DD, Spencer SS, Mattson RH, Williamson PD, Novelly RA. Access to the posterior medial temporal lobe structures in the surgical treatment of temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurosurgery 1984; 15: 667–671.
- Fried I. Anatomic temporal lobe resections for temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurosurgery Clin North Am 1993; 4: 233–242.
- Nayel MH, Awad IA, Luders H. Extent of mesiobasal resection determines outcome after temporal lobectomy for intractable complex partial seizures. Neurosurgery w1991; 29: 55–61.
- Wyler AR, Hermann BP, Somes G. Extent of medial temporal resection on outcome from anterior temporal lobectomy: a randomized prospective study. Neurosurgery 1995; 37: 982–991.
- Ojemann G, Ojemann J, Lettich E, Berger M. Cortical language localization in left, dominant hemisphere. J Neurosurg 1989; 71: 316–326.
- Ojemann GA. Interplay between ‘neocortical’ and ‘limbic’ temporal lobe epilepsy. Advances Neurol 2000; 84: 615–619.
- Niemeyer P. The transventricular amygdala-hippocampectomy in temporal lobe epilepsy. In: M Baldwin, P Bailey (eds). Temporal Lobe Epilepsy. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1958: 461–482.
- Yaşargil MG, Wieser HG, Valavanis A, von Ammon K, Roth P. Surgery and results of selective amygdala-hippocampectomy in one hundred patients with nonlesional limbic epilepsy. Neurosurg Clin North Am 1993; 4: 243–261.
- Tanriverdi T, Olivier A, Poulin N, Andermann F, Dubeau F. Long-term seizure outcome after mesial temporal lobe epilepsy surgery: corticalamygdalohippocampectomy versus selective amygdalohippocampectomy. J Neurosurg 2008; 108: 517–524.
- Goldstein LH, Polkey CE. Short-term cognitive changes after unilateral temporal lobectomy or unilateral amygdalo-hippocampectomy for the relief of temporal lobe epilepsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1993; 56: 135–140.
- Renowden SA, Matkovic Z, Adams CBT, et al. Selective amygdalohippocampectomy for hippocampal sclerosis: Postoperative MR appearance. A J Neuroradiol 1995; 16: 1855–1861.
- Kennedy JD, Schuele SU. Neocortical temporal lobe epilepsy. J Clin Neurophysiol 2012; 29: 366–370.
- Williamson PD, Van Ness PC, Wieser H-G, Quesney LF. Surgically remediable extratemporal syndromes. In: J Jr Engel (ed.). Surgical Treatment of the Epilepsies, 2nd edn. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven, 1993.
- Lee RW, Worrell GA. Dorsolateral frontal lobe epilepsy. J Clin Neurophysiol 2012; 29: 379–384.
- Unnwongse K, Wehner T, Foldvary-Schaefer N. Mesial frontal lobe epilepsy. J Clin Neurophysiol 2012; 29: 371–378.
- Rostomily RC, Berger MS, Ojemann GA, Lettich E. Postoperative deficits and functional recovery following removal of tumors involving the dominant hemisphere supplementary motor area. J Neurosurg 1991; 75: 62–68.
- Aykut-Bingol C, Bronen RA, Kim JH, Spencer DD, Spencer SS. Surgical outcome in occipital lobe epilepsy: implications for pathophysiology. Ann Neurol 1998; 44: 60–69.
- Salanova V, Andermann F, Olivier A, Rasmussen T, Quesney LF. Occipital lobe epilepsy: electroclinical manifestations, electrocorticography, cortical stimulation and outcome in 42 patients treated between 1930 and 1991. Brain 1992; 115: 1655–1680.
- Adcock JE, Panayiotopoulos CP. Occipital lobe seizures and epilepsies. J Clin Neurophysiol 2012; 29: 397–407.
- Salanova V, Andermann F, Rasmussen T, Olivier A, Quesney LF. Parietal lobe epilepsy: clinical manifestations and outcome in 82 patients treated surgically between 1929 and 1988. Brain 1995; 118: 607–627.
- Salanova V. Parietal lobe epilepsy. J Clin Neurophysiol 2012; 29: 392–396.
- Russell SM, Elliott R, Forshaw D, Kelly PJ, Golfinos JG. Resection of parietal lobe gliomas: incidence and evolution of neurological deficits in 28 consecutive patients correlated to the location and morphological characteristics of the tumor. J Neurosurg 2005; 103: 1010–1017.
- Isnard J, Guenot M, Sindou M, Mauguiere F. Clinical manifestations of insular lobe seizures: a stereo-electroencephalographic study. Epilepsia 2004; 45: 1079–1090.
- Hader WJ, Mackay M, Otsubo H, et al. Cortical dysplastic lesions in children with intractable epilepsy: role of complete resection. J Neurosurg 2004; 100 (2 Suppl.): 110–117.
- von Lehe M, Wellmer J, Urbach H, Schramm J, Elger CE, Clusmann H. Insular lesionectomy for refractory epilepsy: management and outcome. Brain 2009; 132: 1048–1056.
- Roper SN, Levesque MF, Sutherling WW, Engel J Jr. Surgical treatment of partial epilepsy arising from the insular cortex. Report of two cases. J Neurosurgery 1993; 79: 266–269.
- Dylgjeri S, Taussig D, Chipaux M, et al. Insular and insulo-opercular epilepsy in childhood: an SEEG study. Seizure 2014; 23: 300–308.
- Desai A, Jobst BC, Thadani VM, et al. Stereotactic depth electrode investigation of the insula in the evaluation of medically intractable epilepsy. J Neurosurg 2011; 114: 1176–1186.
- Ryvlin P. Avoid falling into the depths of the insular trap. Epileptic Disord 2006; 2 (Suppl.): S37–56.
- Ryvlin P, Kahane P. The hidden causes of surgery-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy: extratemporal or temporal plus? Curr Opin Neurol 2005; 18: 125–127.
- Leiphart JW, Peacock WJ, Mathern GW. Lobar and multilobar resections for medically intractable pediatric epilepsy. Pediatr Neurosurg 2001; 34: 311–318.
- Chugani HT, Asano E, Juhász C, Kumar A, Kupsky WJ, Sood S. “Subtotal” hemispherectomy in children with intractable focal epilepsy. Epilepsia 2014; 55: 1926–1933.
- Fried I. Magnetic resonance imaging and epilepsy: neurosurgical decision making. Magn Reson Imaging 1995; 13: 1163–1170.
- Mitchell LA, Jackson GD, Kalnins R, et al. Anterior temporal abnormality in temporal lobe epilepsy: a quantitative MRI and histopathologic study. Neurology 1999; 52: 327–336.
- Cascino GD, Jack CR, Parisi JE, et al. MRI in the presurgical evaluation of patients with frontal lobe epilepsy and children with temporal lobe epilepsy: pathologic correlation and prognostic importance. Epilepsy Res 1992; 11: 51–59.
- Radhakrishnan K, Fried I, Cascino GD. Lesionectomy: management of substrate-directed epilepsies. In: J Jr Engel, TA Pedley (eds). Epilepsy. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008: 1891–1906.
- Fried I, Cascino G. Lesionectomy. In: J Engel, TA Pedley (eds). Epilepsy. New York: Raven Press, 1998: 1841–1850.
- Drzezga A, Arnold S, Minoshima S, et al. 18F-FDG PET studies in patients with extratemporal and temporal epilepsy: evaluation of an observer-independent analysis. J Nucl Med 1999; 40: 737–746.
- Theodore WH, Gaillard WD. Positron emission tomography in neocortical epilepsies. Adv Neurol 2000; 84: 435–446.
- Manno EM, Sperling MR, Ding X, et al. Predictors of outcome after anterior temporal lobectomy: positron emission tomography. Neurology 1994; 44: 2331–2336.
- Ho SS, Berkovic SF, Berlangieri SU, et al. Comparison of ictal SPECT and interictal PET in the presurgical evaluation of temporal lobe epilepsy. Ann Neurol 1995; 37: 738–745.
- O'Brien TJ, So EL, Mullan BP, et al. Subtraction ictal SPECT co-registered to MRI improves clinical usefulness of SPECT in localizing the surgical seizure focus. Neurology 1998; 50: 445–454.
- O'Brien TJ, Mullan BP, Cascino GD, et al. Subtraction peri-ictal SPECT is predictive of extratemporal epilepsy surgery outcome. Neurology 2000; 55: 1668–1677.
- Pittau F, Grouiller F, Spinelli L, Seeck M, Michel CM, Vulliemoz S. The role of functional neuroimaging in pre-surgical epilepsy evaluation. Front Neurol 2014; 5: 1–16.
- Lundbom N, Gaily E, Vuori K, et al. Proton spectroscopic imaging shows abnormalities in glial and neuronal cell pools in frontal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia 2001; 42: 1507–1514.
- Kuzniecky R, Palmer C, Hugg J, et al. Magnetic resonance spectros-copic imaging in temporal lobe epilepsy. Arch Neurol 2001; 58: 2048–2053.
- Vermathen P, Ende G, Laxer KD, et al. Temporal lobectomy for epilepsy: recovery of the contralateral hippocampus measured by (1)H MRS. Neurology 2002; 59: 633–636.
- Salamon N, Kung J, Shaw S, et al. FDG-PET/MRI co-registration and DTI improve detection of cortical dysplasia in epilepsy patients. Epilepsia 2006; 47: 1543–1549.
- Chen Q, Lui S, Li CX, et al. MRI-negative refractory partial epilepsy: role for diffusion tensor imaging in high field MRI. Epilepsy Res 2008; 80: 83–89.
- Focke NK, Yogarajah M, Bonelli SB, Bartlett PA, Symms MR, Duncan JS. Voxel-based diffusion tensor imaging in patients with mesial temporal lobe epilepsy and hippocampal sclerosis. Neuroimage 2008; 40: 728–737.
- Chandra PS, Salamon N, Huang J, et al. FDG-PET/MRI coregistration and diffusion-tensor imaging distinguish epileptogenic tubers and cortex in patients with tuberous sclerosis complex: a preliminary report. Epilepsia 2006; 47: 1543–1549.
- Goubran M, Rudko DA, Santyr B, et al. In vivo normative atlas of the hippocampal subfields using multi-echo susceptibility imaging at 7 Tesla. Human Brain Mapp 2014; 35: 3588–3601.
- Eliashiv DS, Elsas SM, Squires K, Fried I, Engel J Jr. Ictal magnetic source imaging as a localizing tool in partial epilepsy. Neurology 2002; 59: 1600–1610.
- Janjua FN, Eliashiv DS, Fried I. The added value of magnetic source imaging in a large series of medically refractory partial epilepsy patients that are candidates for epilepsy surgery. Epilepsia 2003; 44(Suppl.9): 251.
- Ebersole JS, Squires KC, Eliashiv SD, Smith JR. Applications of magnetic source imaging in evaluation of candidates for epilepsy surgery. Neuroimaging Clin North Am 1995; 5: 267–288.
- Mamelak AN, Lopez N, Akhtari M, Sutherling WW. Magnetoencephalography-directed surgery in patients with neocortical epilepsy. J Neurosurg 2002; 97: 865–873.
- Minassian BA, Otsubo H, Weiss S, Elliott I, Rutka JT, Snead OC. Magnetoencephalographic localization in pediatric epilepsy surgery: comparison with invasive intracranial electroencephalography. Ann Neurol 1999; 46: 627–633.
- Tanaka N, Stufflebeam SM. Clinical application of spatiotemporal distributed source analysis in presurgical evaluation of epilepsy. Front Hum Neurosci 2014; 8: 1–8.
- Tanaka N, Peters JM, Prohl AK, et al. Clinical value of magnetoencephalographic spike propagation represented by spatiotemporal source anaysis: correlation with surgical outcome. Epilepsy Res 2014; 108: 280–288.
- Swanson SJ, Sabsevitz DS, Hammeke TA, Binder JR. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of language in epilepsy. Neuropsychol Rev 2007; 17: 491–504.
- Al-Asmi A, Benar CG, Gross DW, et al. fMRI activation in continuous and spike-triggered EEG-fMRI studies of epileptic spikes. Epilepsia 2003; 44: 1328–1339.
- Federico P, Archer JS, Abbott DF, Jackson GD. Cortical/subcortical BOLD changes associated with epileptic discharges: an EEG-fMRI study at 3 T. Neurology 2005; 64: 1125–1130.
- Bauer PR, Reitsma JB, Houweling BM, Ferrier CH, Ramsey NF. Can fMRI safely replace the Wada test for preoperative assessment of language lateralisation? A meta-analysis and systematic review. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2014; 85: 581–588.
- Gotman J. Epileptic networks studied with EEG-fMRI. Epilepsia 2008; 49 (Suppl.3): 42–51.
- Abela E, Rummel C, Hauf M, Weisstanner C, Schindler K, Wiest R. Neuroimaging of epilepsy: lesions, networks, oscillations. Clin Neuroradiol 2014; 24: 5–15.
- Blackburn LB, Lee GP, Westerveld M, Hempel A, Park YD, Loring DW. The verbal IQ/performance IQ discrepancy as a sign of seizure focus laterality in pediatric patients with epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2007; 10: 84–88.
- Chelune GJ, Naugle RI, Hermann BP, et al. Does presurgical IQ predict seizure outcome after temporal lobectomy? evidence from the Bozeman Epilepsy Consortium. Epilepsia 1998; 39: 314–318.
- Wada J, Rasmussen T. Intracarotid injection of sodium amytal for the lateralization of cerebral speech dominance. J Neurosurg 1960; 17: 266–282.
- Andelman F, Kipervasser S, Neufeld MY, Kramer U, Fried I. Predictive value of Wada memory scores on postoperative learning and memory abilities in patients with intractable epilepsy. J Neurosurg 2006; 104: 20–26.
- Sperling MR, Saykin AJ, Glosser G, et al. Predictors of outcome after anterior temporal lobectomy: the intracarotid amobarbital test. Neurology 1994; 44: 2325–2330.
- Bauer PR, Kalitzin S, Zijmans M, Sander JW, Visser GH. Cortical excitability as a potential clinical marker of epilepsy: a review of the clinical application of transcranial magnetic stimulation. Int J Neural Syst 2014; 24: 1–21.
- Spencer SS, Sperling MR, Shewmon DA, Kahane P. Intracranial electrodes. In: J Jr Engel, TA Pedley (eds). Epilepsy. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008: 1791–1815.
- Gloss D, Nolan SJ, Staba R. The role of high-frequency oscillations in epilepsy surgery planning. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; (1): 1–26.
- Fried I, Wilson CL, Maidment NT, et al. Cerebral microdialysis combined with single neuron and EEG recording in neurosurgical patients. J Neurosurg 1999; 91: 697–705.
- So N, Olivier A, Andermann F, Gloor P, Quesney LF. Results of surgical treatment in patients with bitemporal epileptiform abnormalities. Ann Neurol 1989; 25: 432–439.
- Mintzer S, Cendes F, Soss J, et al. Unilateral hippocampal sclerosis with contralateral temporal scalp ictal onset. Epilepsia 2004; 45: 792–203.
- Wiebe S, Blume WT, Girvin JP, Eliasziw M. A randomized, controlled trial of surgery for temporal lobe epilepsy. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 311–318.
- Engel J Jr, McDermott MP, Wiebe S, et al. Early surgical therapy for drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy; a randomized trial. JAMA 2012; 307: 922–930.
- Helmstaedter C, Roeske S, Kaaden S, Egler CE, Schramm J. Hippocampal resection length and memory outcome in selective epilepsy surgery. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2010; 82: 1375–1381.
- Téllez-Zenteno JF, Dhar R, Wiebe S. Long-term seizure outcomes following epilepsy surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain 2005; 128: 1188–1198.
- Spencer SS, Berg AT, Vickrey BG, et al. Initial outcomes in the multicenter study of epilepsy surgery. Neurology 2003; 61: 1680–1685.
- Spencer SS, Berg AT, Vickrey BG, et al. Predicting long-term seizure outcome after resective epilepsy surgery. Neurology 2005; 65: 912–918.
- Walczak TS, Radtke RA, McNamara JO, et al. Anterior temporal lobectomy for complex partial seizures: evaluation, results, and long-term follow-up in 100 cases. Neurology 1990; 40: 413–418.
- Engel J Jr, Wiebe S, French J, et al. Practice parameter: temporal lobe and localized neocortical resections for epilepsy. Neurology 2003; 60: 538–547.
- Elsharkawy AE, Behne F, Oppel F, et al. Long-term outcome of extratemporal epilepsy surgery among 154 adult patients. J Neurosurg 2008; 108: 676–686.
- Téllez-Zenteno JF, Dhar R, Hernandez-Ronquillo L, Wiebe S: Long-term outcomes in epilepsy surgery: antiepileptic drugs, mortality, cognitive and psychosocial aspects. Brain 2007; 130: 334–345.
- Schramm J, Kral T, Blümcke I, Elger CE. Surgery for neocortical temporal and frontal epilepsy. Adv Neurol 2000; 84: 595–603.
- Noe K, Sulc V, Wong-Kisiel L, et al. Long-term outcomes after nonlesional extratemporal lobe epilepsy surgery. JAMA Neurol 2013; 70: 1003–1008.
- Englot DJ, Breshears JD, Sun PP, Chang EF, Auguste KI. Seizure outcomes after resective surgery for extra-temporal lobe epilepsy in pediatric patients. J Neurosurg Pediatrics 2013; 12: 126–133.
- Rasmussen T. Tailoring of cortical excisions for frontal lobe epilepsy. Can J Neurol Sci 1991; 18: 606–610.
- Najm I, Jehi L, Palmini A, Gonzalez-Martinez J, Paglioli E, Bingman W. Temporal patterns and mechanisms of epilepsy surgery failure. Epilepsia 2013; 54: 772–782.
- Surges R, Elger CE. Reoperation after failed resective epilepsy surgery. Seizure 2013; 22: 493–501.
- Perry MS, Duchowny M. Surgical versus medical treatment for refractory epilepsy: outcomes beyond seizure control. Epilepsia 2013; 54: 2060–2070.
- Chin PS, Berg AT, Spencer SS, et al. Patient-perceived impact of resective epilepsy surgery. Neurology 2006; 66: 1882–1887.
- Devinsky O, Barr WB, Vickrey BG, et al. Changes in depression and anxiety after resective surgery for epilepsy. Neurology 2005; 65: 1744–1749.
- Langfitt JT, Holloway RG, McDermott MP, et al. Health care costs decline after successful epilepsy surgery. Neurology 2007; 68: 1290–1298.
- Fountain NB. Delivering quality care in epilepsy. Curr Opin Neurol 2013; 26: 174–178.
- Burneo JG, Black L, Martin R, et al. Race/ethnicity, sex, and socioeconomic status as predictors of outcome after surgery for temporal lobe epilepsy. Arch Neurol 2006; 63: 1106–1110.
- Wiebe S. Perspective: the surgical solution. Nature 2014; 511: S7.
- Behrens E, Schramm J, Zentner J, König R. Surgical and neurological complications in a series of 708 epilepsy surgery procedures. Neurosurgery 1997; 41: 1–10.
- Wolf RL, Ivnik RJ, Hirschorn KA, Sharbrough FW, Cascino GD, Marsh WR. Neurocognitive efficiency following left temporal lobectomy: standard versus limited resection. J Neurosurg 1993; 79: 76–83.
- Hermann BP, Wyler AR, Somes G. Language function following anterior temporal lobectomy. J Neurosurg 1991; 74: 560–566.
- Hader WJ, Tellez-Zenteno J, Metcalfe A, et al. Complications of epilepsy surgery: A systematic review of focal surgical resections and invasive EEG monitoring. Epilepsia 2013; 54: 840–847.
- Tebo CC, Evins AI, Christos PJ, Kwon J, Schwartz TH. Evolution of cranial epilepsy surgery complication rates: a 32-year systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurosurg 2014; 120: 1415–1427.
- Heck CN, King-Stephens D, Massey AD, et al. Two-year seizure reduction in adults with medically intractable partial onset epilepsy treated with responsive neurostimulation: Final results of the RNS System Pivotal trial. Epilepsia 2014; 55: 432–441.
- Fisher R, Salanova V, Witt T, et al.; SANTE Study Group. Electrical stimulation of the anterior nucleus of thalamus for treatment of refractory epilepsy. Epilepsia 2010; 51: 899–908.
- Vagus Nerve Stimulation Study Group. A randomized controlled trial of chronic vagus nerve stimulation for treatment of medically intractable seizures. Neurology 1995; 45: 224–230.
- Barbaro NM, Quigg M, Broshek DK, et al. A multicenter, prospective pilot study of gamma knife radiosurgery for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: Seizure response, adverse events and verbal memory. Ann Neurol 2009; 65: 167–175.
- Guenot M, Isnard J, Catenoix H, Mauguiere F, Sindou M. SEEG-guided RF-thermocoagulation of epileptic foci: a therapeutic alternative for drug-resistant non-operable partial epilepsies. Adv Tech Stand Neurosurg 2011; 36: 61–78.
- Wilfong A, Curry D. Hypothalamic hamartomas: Optimal approach to clinical evaluation and diagnosis. Epilepsia 2013; 54 (Suppl. 9): 109–114.
- Esquenazi Y, Kalamangalam GP, Slater JD, et al. Stereotactic laser ablation of epileptogenic periventricular nodular heterotopia. Epilepsy Research 2014; 108: 547–555.
- Drane DL, Loring DW, Voets NL, et al. Better object recognition and naming outcome with MRI-guided stereotactic laser amygdalohippocampotomy for temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia 2015; 56: 101–113.
- Tovar-Spinoza Z, Carter D, Ferrone D, Eksioglu Y, Huckins S. The use of MRI-guided laser-induced thermal ablation for epilepsy. Childs Nerv Syst 2013; 29: 2089–2094.
- Curry DJ, Gowda A, McNichols RJ, Wilfong AA. MR-guided stereotactic laser ablation of epileptogenic foci in children. Epilepsy Behav 2012; 24: 408–414.
- Elias WJ, Huss D, Voss T, et al. A pilot study of focused ultrasound thalamotomy for essential tremor. N Engl J Med 2013; 369: 640–648.
- Monteith S, Sheehan J, Medel R, et al. Potential intracranial applications of magnetic resonance-guided focused ultrasound surgery. J Neurosurg 2013; 118: 215–221.