Cardiac Arrhythmia
Peter Jordan
Weill Medical College of Cornell University, Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, New York, New York
Search for more papers by this authorDavid Christini
Weill Medical College of Cornell University, Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, New York, New York
Search for more papers by this authorPeter Jordan
Weill Medical College of Cornell University, Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, New York, New York
Search for more papers by this authorDavid Christini
Weill Medical College of Cornell University, Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, New York, New York
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
The term cardiac arrhythmia refers to any disturbance or perturbation to the normal electrical activation sequence of the heart. In this article, the basic electrophysiological mechanisms underlying tachyarrhythmias (abnormally fast heart rhythms) are discussed, and a number of commonly occurring tachyarrhythmias are reviwed. The main therapeutic modalities used to treat tachyarrhythmias are also summarized.
Bibliography
- 1D. P. Zipes and H. J. Wellens, Sudden cardiac death. Circulation 1998; 98: 2334–2351.
- 2C. Antzelevitch, Clinical application of new concepts of parasystole, reflection, and tachycardia. Cardiol. Clin. 1983; 1: 39–50.
- 3C. Antzelevitch and A. Burashnikov, Mechanisms of arrhythmogenesis. In: P. J. Podrid and P. R. Kowev, eds., Cardiac Arrhythmia: Mechanisms, Diagnosis & Management. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001.
- 4G. Tomaselli and D. M. Roden, Molecular and cellular basis of cardiac electrophysiology. In: S. Saksena and A. J. Camm, eds., Electrophysiological Disorders of the Heart. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier, 2005.
- 5P. G. Volders, M. A. Vos, B. Szabo, K. R. Sipido, S. H. de Groot, A. P. Gorgels, H. J. Wellens, and R. Lazzara, Progress in the understanding of cardiac early afterdepolarizations and torsades de pointes: time to revise current concepts. Cardiovasc. Res. 2000; 46: 376–392.
- 6A. Burashnikov and C. Antzelevitch, Acceleration-induced action potential prolongation and early afterdepolarization. J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol. 1998; 9: 934–948.
- 7W. T. Clusin, Calcium and cardiac arrhythmias: DADs, EADs, and alternans. Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci. 2003; 40: 337–375.
- 8J. Jalife and H. S. Faramarz, Mechanism of reentrant arrhythmais. In: S. Saksena and A. J. Camm, eds., Electrophysiological Disorders of the Heart. Philadelpihia, PA: Elsevier, 2005.
- 9G. X. Yan, A. Joshi, D. Guo, T. Hlaing, J. Martin, X. Xu, and P. R. Kowey, Phase 2 reentry as a trigger to initiate ventricular fibrillation during early acute mycardial ischemia. Circulation 2004; 110: 1036–1041.
- 10P. N. Jordan, and D. J. Christini, Therapies for ventricular cardiac arrhythmias. Crit. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 2005; 33: 557–605.
- 11C. Garratt, Mechanism and Management of Cardiac Arrhythmias. London: BMJ Books, 2001.
- 12K. A. Ellenbogen and M. A. Wood. Atrial tachycardia. In: D. P. Zipes and J. Jalife, eds., Cardiac Electrophysiology: From Cell to Bedside. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 2004.
10.1016/B0-7216-0323-8/50058-0 Google Scholar
- 13A. L. Waldo, Atrial flutter: mechanism, clinical features, and management. In: D. P. Zipes and J. Jalife, eds., Cardiac Electrophysiology: From Cell to Bedside. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 2004.
10.1016/B0-7216-0323-8/50057-9 Google Scholar
- 14S. Nattel, New ideas about atrial fibrillation 50 years on. Nature 2002; 415: 219–225.
- 15M. C. Wijffels, C. J. Kirchhof, R. Dorland, and M. A. Allessie, Atrial fibrillation begets atrial fibrillation. A study in awake chronically instrumented goats. Circulation 1995; 92: 1954–1968.
- 16A. E. Buxton and J. Duc, Ventricular premature depolarizations and nonsustained ventricular tachycardia. In: P. J. Podrid and P. R. Kowey, eds., Cardiac Arrhythmia: Mechanisms, Diagnosis & Management. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001.
- 17D. Martin and D. J. Wharton, Sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardia. In: P. J. Podrid and P. R. Kowey, eds., Cardiac Arrhythmia: Mechanisms, Diagnosis & Management. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001.
- 18S. H. Hohnloser, Polymorphous ventricular tachycardia, including torsade de pointes. In: P. J. Podrid and P. R. Kowey, eds., Cardiac Arrhythmia: Mechanisms, Diagnosis & Management. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001.
- 19J. Jalife, Ventricular fibrillation: mechanism of initiation and maintenance. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 2000; 62: 25–50.
- 20C. P. Antzelevitch, P. Brugada, J. Brugada, and R. Brugada, Brugada syndrome: from cell to bedside. Curr. Probl. Cardiol. 2005; 30: 9–54.
- 21M. J. Ackerman, Genetic testing for risk stratification in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and long QT syndrome: fact or fiction? Curr. Opin. Cardiol. 2005; 20: 175–181.
- 22P. J. Schwartz, The long QT syndrome. In: S. Saksena and A. J. Camm, eds., Electrophysiological Disorders of the Heart. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier, 2005.
- 23E. N. Prystowsky, R. Yee, and G. J. Klein, Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. In: D. P. Zipes and J. Jalife, eds., Cardiac Electrophysiology: From Cell to Bedside. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 2004.
- 24C. R. Conti, What happened to the Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome? Clin. Cardiol. 2001; 24: 531–532.
- 25 Preliminary report: effect of encainide and flecainide on mortality in a randomized trial of arrhythmia suppression after myocardial infarction. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) investigators. N. Engl. J. Med. 1989; 321: 406–412.
- 26A. L. Waldo, A.J. Camm, H. deRuyter, P. L. Friedman, D. J. MacNeil, J. F. Pauls, B. Pitt, C. M. Pratt, P. J. Schwartz, and E. P. Veltri, Effect of d-sotalol on mortality in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after recent and remote myocardial infarction. The SWORD investigators. Survival with oral d-sotalol. Lancet 1996; 348: 7–12.
- 27D. M. Roden, Antiarrhythmic drugs: past, present and future. Pacing Clin. Electrophysiol. 2003; 26: 2340–2349.
- 28J. P. DiMarco, Implantable cardioverter-defibrillators. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003; 349: 1836–1847.
- 29J. L. Cox, Cardiac surgery for arrhythmias. J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol. 2004; 15: 250–263.
- 30D. Keane, New catheter ablation techniques for the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias. Card. Electrophysiol. Rev. 2002; 6: 341–348
- 31J. K. Donahue, Gene therapy for cardiac arrhythmias. Ann. N Y Acad. Sci. 2004; 1015: 332–337.
- 32R. R. Makkar, M. Lill, and P. S. Chen, Stem cell therapy for myocardial repairs: is it arrhythmogenic? J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2003; 42: 2070–2072.
- 33A. V. Panfilov and A. V. Holden, Computational Biology of the Heart. New York: Wiley, 1997.
- 34D. Noble and Y. Rudy, Models of cardiac ventricular action potentials: iterative interaction between experiment and simulation. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A 2001; 359: 1127–1142.
- 35D. Noble, Modeling the heart—from genes to cells to the whole organ. Science 2002; 295: 1678–1682.
- 36J. P. Keener, Arrhythmias by dimension. In: J. Sneyd, ed., An Introduction to Mathematical Modeling in Physiology, Cell Biology, and Immunology. Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society, 2002.