1. Introduction

Scientists study the global energy demand and the role of renewable energy sources for several key reasons. First and foremost, climate change, driven by greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, represents one of the greatest challenges of the modern world, requiring urgent action in the field of energy transition. The growing demand for energy, linked to population growth and economic development, exerts increasing pressure on the natural environment, potentially leading to irreversible ecological damage. Therefore, research on renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and geothermal energy, is crucial in finding solutions that can meet rising energy needs in a more sustainable and environmentally friendly way. Additionally, the development of energy storage technologies, enabling the efficient use of renewable sources, is essential to ensure the stability and reliability of energy systems. Understanding these issues is vital not only for scientists but also for policymakers, industries, and societies that must take concrete actions to secure an energy future based on sustainable development principles.

Global energy demand is projected to rise by 0.7% through 2030 under the Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS). However, in the Announced Pledges Scenario (APS), it is expected to decline by an average of 0.1% annually until 2030, driven by faster adoption of renewable energy and improved energy efficiency. In the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario (NZE), energy demand is anticipated to fall by 1.2% per year until 2030 [1]. Projections for the rise in average global temperature by 2100 indicate an increase of 2.4°C under the STEP scenario, 1.7°C under the APC, and 1.4°C under the NZE. These forecasts prompted the adoption of CO₂ emission regulations, as outlined in the Paris Agreement [2] and at the European Union (EU) level [3].

As the share of energy produced from renewable sources, especially solar and wind, grows, a distinct gap is becoming evident between these sustainable options and conventional fossil fuel-based energy production [4]. Solar energy generated by photovoltaic (PV) panels is consistently rising across all scenarios, with panels installed on buildings projected to contribute to half of this total, largely driven by declining costs [5]. Solar energy captured by PV panels is steadily increasing across all scenarios, with panels mounted on buildings expected to contribute to about half of this total, mainly due to falling costs [1]. The total installed capacity of renewable energy sources has doubled over the past decade, surpassing 3370 GW in 2022. Of this, hydropower accounts for over 1390 GW, wind energy exceeds 890 GW, solar energy contributes over 1050 GW, bioenergy approaches 150 GW, and geothermal energy stands at nearly 15 GW. These capacities are all connected to the electrical grid [6].

This growing gap reflects not only a shift in the sources of energy but also highlights the fundamental differences between them in terms of environmental impact, sustainability, and long-term viability. Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and hydropower, offer a cleaner and more sustainable alternative, as they generate energy with minimal GHG emissions. This significantly contributes to reducing the overall carbon footprint and helps mitigate climate change. Additionally, renewable energy production tends to have a lower impact on ecosystems, leading to reduced environmental degradation, such as deforestation or habitat destruction. On the other hand, fossil fuel–based energy production, which relies on coal, oil, and natural gas, is deeply intertwined with a range of negative environmental consequences. The burning of fossil fuels is one of the leading contributors to carbon emissions, which drive global warming and exacerbate climate change. Furthermore, the extraction, processing, and consumption of these resources result in air and water pollution, often leading to health hazards for local populations and biodiversity loss in affected regions. Fossil fuels are also finite resources, meaning that their continued use leads to resource depletion, which poses significant challenges for long-term energy security and economic stability. This stark contrast between renewable and nonrenewable energy sources underscores the importance of transitioning to more sustainable energy solutions for the future [5].

The transition to renewable energy represents a significant societal and economic shift toward cleaner and more resilient energy systems. Investments in renewable infrastructure drive innovation, create jobs, and enhance energy security by reducing dependence on the often-volatile fossil fuel markets [7]. Electricity, as a highly ordered form of energy, is more versatile compared to other energy types because it can be efficiently converted into other forms. For instance, electricity can be transformed into mechanical energy with nearly 100% efficiency or into heat with perfect efficiency. However, thermal energy, being a less ordered form, cannot be converted to electricity as efficiently, with conversion rates below 50%. One downside of electricity, however, is the challenge of large-scale storage [8, 9]. Currently, nearly all electricity is consumed as it is produced, which poses no issue for conventional power plants where fuel consumption is adjusted based on demand. In contrast, wind and PV systems, being intermittent energy sources, cannot guarantee continuous supply 24/7 throughout the year. This makes energy storage a critical addition to such power systems, significantly enhancing load availability, a fundamental requirement for any power grid [10]. Current and emerging energy storage technologies that can be applied to stand-alone wind or PV power systems are categorized into several key types: batteries, flywheels, compressed air energy storage (CAES), superconducting coils, pumped hydro plants, thermal energy storage, and gravity-based storage systems [11].

The construction industry, as a major consumer of energy and raw materials, represents a critical sector for implementing these transformative technologies. Among human activities, construction is one of the largest global energy consumers, accounting for over 40% of total energy usage in the economy, advancing renewable energy solutions in this domain is paramount [12–14]. Additionally, the construction industry utilizes 40% of the world’s natural aggregates, 25% of the planet’s primary forests, and 16% of its annual water supply [15]. The European Commission estimates that this sector is responsible for 50% of the raw materials extracted in Europe, and it is also a significant contributor to global waste production [16, 17]. As the construction industry seeks to reduce its environmental footprint, the integration of renewable energy sources and advanced storage technologies is becoming essential [18]. This transformation is not just a response to regulatory pressures but a critical strategy for achieving long-term sustainability in the sector [19, 20].

The analyzed industry sector is one of the most energy-intensive sectors, with significant energy consumption occurring at multiple stages of the building process. A considerable portion of this energy demand is attributed to the production and processing of materials. The manufacturing of essential construction materials such as cement, steel, glass, and bricks requires large-scale industrial operations that consume vast amounts of energy, often derived from fossil fuels. Cement production alone accounts for ~8% of the global CO₂ emissions due to the energy-intensive clinker formation process. In addition to material production, transportation and logistics associated with construction projects further contribute to the sector’s high energy consumption. The movement of raw materials, prefabricated components, and heavy machinery to and from construction sites relies heavily on fuel-powered transportation, exacerbating the industry’s carbon footprint. Moreover, on-site construction activities—including excavation, welding, concrete curing, and equipment operation—require substantial amounts of energy, primarily supplied by diesel generators or electricity from conventional sources. After a building is constructed, its energy demand does not cease. Heating, cooling, lighting, and ventilation systems require a continuous energy supply to maintain comfortable indoor conditions. Additionally, waste management and demolition processes necessitate further energy for material recycling and disposal, further emphasizing the sector’s reliance on energy-intensive operations.

To balance the high-energy demand in construction, a range of mitigation strategies can be implemented. A key approach is the integration of renewable energy sources into both construction processes and building operations. PV panels, wind energy systems, and geothermal heating solutions can be incorporated at construction sites to reduce dependence on fossil fuel–based energy. The case study presented in this article demonstrates the feasibility of a PV system, highlighting its role in reducing long-term operational costs and minimizing environmental impact. Another effective mitigation measure is the adoption of energy-efficient construction technologies. The use of electric-powered construction machinery, energy-efficient lighting, and optimized HVAC systems can lead to substantial energy savings during both construction and building operation phases. Furthermore, prefabrication and modular construction techniques help minimize energy consumption by reducing on-site labor requirements and improving material efficiency. Off-site manufacturing of building components also reduces waste and enhances construction speed, leading to lower overall energy use.

The construction industry, traditionally reliant on fossil fuels, is increasingly embracing renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and geothermal. These sources not only reduce carbon emissions but also provide a more reliable and cost-effective energy supply over time. By incorporating renewable energy systems into construction projects, companies can significantly lower their operational costs and contribute to global efforts to combat climate change [21]. However, the adoption of renewable energy alone is not enough. The intermittent nature of sources like solar and wind means that energy storage technologies are crucial for ensuring a steady energy supply. Advanced storage solutions, such as lithium-ion batteries and pumped hydro storage, allow excess energy generated during peak production times to be stored and used when renewable generation is low. This capability is vital for maintaining energy efficiency and reliability in construction projects. To effectively integrate these technologies into the construction industry, simulation tools are used to model and predict energy needs, production capacities, and storage requirements. These simulations help in designing buildings and infrastructure that optimize the use of renewable energy and storage systems. By simulating different scenarios, construction companies can identify the most efficient and cost-effective strategies for energy use, reducing waste and improving overall sustainability. The construction industry’s move toward renewable energy and advanced storage technologies is a critical step in achieving sustainable development. Through the use of simulation tools, the industry cannot only reduce its environmental impact but also enhance its economic viability in the long term.

The literature part of the article discusses the critical role of energy storage technologies in enhancing industrial adoption of renewable energy sources. It emphasizes how these technologies mitigate the variability of renewables like solar and wind power, ensuring stable energy supply for industrial operations. By enabling energy independence, reducing GHG emissions, and improving grid stability, energy storage systems facilitate a sustainable transition away from fossil fuels. The section underscores the diverse range of storage solutions available, each tailored to specific industrial needs, thereby supporting broader energy efficiency and resilience goals. The research section of this article focuses on simulating the implementation of renewable energy sources, specifically PV systems, in a construction company. It involves developing a simulation model that analyzes the impact of adopting solar energy on the company’s energy consumption, operational costs, and GHG emissions. The study models various scenarios based on real-world data, such as energy usage, production, weather conditions, and market trends. It includes optimization analysis to identify the most cost-effective solutions, validation through stakeholder engagement, and a case study detailing the financial and technical aspects of a proposed PV installation, demonstrating significant long-term savings.

Despite extensive research on renewable energy technologies, gaps persist in their practical application within smaller-scale industrial settings, particularly in the construction sector. Recent research has primarily focused on technological advancements, including more efficient PV systems, smart grids, and innovative storage solutions [5, 9]. Emphasis is placed on reducing carbon footprints and enhancing sustainability. However, many studies overlook the financial incentives that renewable energy systems can provide to enterprises. Existing studies often emphasize technological advancements or large-scale implementations, overlooking the financial and operational implications for smaller enterprises. While environmental benefits are crucial, highlighting potential cost savings can encourage businesses to adopt these technologies more readily. This article contributes to the existing literature by not only addressing environmental concerns but also focusing on financial outcomes, such as cost reduction and profitability, which are essential for motivating broader adoption.

This study addresses this gap by exploring the dual benefits of renewable energy adoption economic savings and environmental impact reduction through a case study of a PV system in a construction company. By leveraging simulation models, this research bridges the theoretical and practical aspects, offering actionable insights for industry stakeholders. The analysis in this article centers on a case study of a construction company, using real-world data on electricity consumption and associated costs. By simulating the integration of a PV system, this research demonstrates how renewable energy can deliver substantial financial benefits over time, complementing its environmental advantages. Unlike previous works that primarily explore technological innovations, this study underscores the economic dimension of energy transformation, providing a practical perspective that supports decision-making in the construction industry.

By combining environmental and financial perspectives, this article aligns with the current body of research while addressing a gap in the literature. The findings aim to encourage enterprises to take bolder steps in adopting renewable energy technologies, thereby accelerating the transition toward a sustainable and economically viable future.

In studies on the impact of the construction sector on carbon dioxide emissions, it is worth referring to the work of Huang et al. [22], which analyzes global CO₂ emissions resulting from construction activities. The authors used the 2009 World Input–Output Table (WIOT) to estimate both direct and indirect emissions related to the use of 26 different energy sources. The results indicate that the construction sector was responsible for 5.7 billion tons of CO₂ emissions in 2009, which was as much as 23% of global emissions related to economic activity. In addition, 94% of emissions came from indirect sources, such as the production of building materials and transport, with the largest emitters being emerging economies, in particular China, India, and Russia.

Iqbal et al. [23] study examines the key factors influencing the adoption of energy management practices (EMPs) in the construction sector, with special emphasis on the context of developing countries such as Pakistan. The authors identify the main drivers of the implementation of energy management strategies, indicating the important role of government regulations, investment subsidies, taxation, and energy awareness of employees. In their analysis, they use a four-step methodology, including fuzzy Delphi method (FDM), interpretive structural modeling (ISM), and MICMAC analysis to classify the key factors influencing the adoption of EMPs in the construction sector. The results of the study indicate that the most important factors that facilitate the implementation of EMPs are increased enforcement of government regulations, promotion of investment subsidies, and taxation of construction companies for excessive energy consumption and emission of pollutants.

With regard to research on energy modeling and data analysis in the built environment, it is worth referring to the review work by Manfren et al. [24], which focuses on the role of energy modeling as a tool supporting energy transformation processes in the building sector. The authors emphasize that energy efficiency in buildings requires a transition from general concepts to specific actions, and the key enablers of this change are open energy data, interoperability of digital systems, building automation, and advanced analytical models. This review points to three levels of analysis: energy modeling at different scales (building, city, and region), harmonization of performance analysis methods, and new concepts such as energy flexibility and occupant-centric models.

In the context of global research on the integration of renewable energy sources in the building sector, it is worth referring to the review work by Chen et al. [25], which analyzes practices related to the implementation of renewable energy in buildings around the world. The authors indicate that the integration of RES systems, such as PV, wind energy, geothermal energy, and biomass, is a key element of the energy transformation of buildings, emphasizing the importance of microinstallations, smart grids, and energy storage as a future direction of the sector’s development. The study also presents examples of the implementation of innovative solutions in various regions of the world, such as the Bullitt Center in Seattle (USA), using PV and energy storage systems, and the Bahrain World Trade Center, integrating wind turbines into the building structure. The results of our research are consistent with the general trends presented by Chen et al. [25], but they focus on local energy conditions in Poland and especially on simulation optimization of PV and energy storage systems. While in the work of Chen et al. [25] the main focus was on global strategies and policies supporting the implementation of RES in buildings, our study provides specific simulation results regarding the energy efficiency of buildings in Polish climatic and economic conditions. The presented results allow for practical determination of the potential of using energy storage in the local context, which is an important complement to international analyses included in the literature. Moreover, unlike the review nature of the research by Chen et al., our study focuses on the practical application of simulation tools (PV ^∗SOL) for the energy optimization of selected buildings.

2. PV

The adoption of renewable energy technologies in industrial settings is increasingly central to achieving sustainable and self-sufficient energy solutions. Advances in energy generation have made it possible for consumers to utilize various on-site power generation methods. Specifically, there has been notable progress in solar energy systems (both PV and solar thermal), wind power, and microcogeneration technologies [26].

These innovations not only facilitate the development of energy–prosumer environments but also fit within broader economic and regulatory frameworks that promote renewable energy. Their ability to fulfill or surpass the energy demands of industrial facilities while remaining economically viable is especially noteworthy. Consequently, buildings that once solely relied on electricity consumption are now capable of generating their own power. This shift allows them to support their energy communities and contribute surplus electricity to the grid. Many countries, including Latvia, use net energy systems—a method of energy metering that has become increasingly popular in residential areas—to manage the balance between on-site generation and grid electricity [27]. Over time, advancements in on-site generation technology have led some high-efficiency buildings to become consistent net producers, generating more electricity than they consume. This trend is advantageous for creating a more energy-efficient, cost-effective, and sustainable real estate sector in Europe. Nevertheless, despite the rising implementation of these technologies, there is a significant gap in research concerning their optimization and full potential for smaller-scale industries. Most existing studies have concentrated on residential or large-scale industrial settings, leaving a notable gap in research focused on smaller industrial facilities, which have different operational and financial characteristics [28].

As global demand for clean energy steadily rises, PV power generation, a leading form of renewable energy, is experiencing rapid growth. China has emerged as the dominant force in the global PV market. According to data from the National Energy Administration (NEA), 2023 saw the addition of 216.30 GW of new grid-connected capacity, a staggering 148% increase compared to the previous year, equivalent to the total new installations from 2019 to 2022 combined. This includes 120.014 GW from centralized PV plants and 96.286 GW from distributed PV, with household PV accounting for 43.483 GW. By the end of 2023, China’s cumulative grid-connected capacity reached 608.918 GW, with centralized plants at 354.481 GW, distributed plants at 254.438 GW, and household PV at 115.797 GW. Distributed PV, known for its low investment, quick construction, and wide applicability, is set to continue growing rapidly, fueled by supportive policies and technological advancements. Estimates suggest China’s distributed PV capacity will exceed 500 GW by 2030 [29, 30].

On a global scale, PV markets in Europe, the United States, and Asia are also thriving. In 2023, global PV installations hit 444 GW, a 76% increase from the previous year, with half of the growth driven by China. Total global PV capacity reached 1552.3 GW in 2023 and is projected to reach 1954.6 GW in 2024, with an additional 402.3 GW expected. The European Green New Deal [31] plays a significant role in driving PV adoption across Europe as countries aim to increase the share of renewables in their energy mix. However, as PV systems become more widespread, challenges related to power quality are emerging, particularly in distributed PV setups. The mismatch between PV generation and load can lead to reverse currents and voltage issues in distribution lines. Managing voltage regulation is crucial to maintaining system stability in such cases [32].

In the EU today, buildings account for ~40% of energy consumption and 35% of GHG emissions [33, 34]. This figure encompasses the entire lifecycle of buildings, from construction through to demolition. As part of the European Green New Deal [31] and the Renovation Wave initiative [35], enhancing the energy efficiency of buildings and lowering their emissions can be achieved by advancing green and sustainable micro and on-site energy generation across all types of buildings and their complexes. The EU’s commitment to reducing net GHG emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels requires various sectors, including real estate and construction, to cut their emissions and significantly boost energy efficiency. This effort aims to prevent future peaks in GHG emissions [36]. In Poland, a focus on decarbonizing the entire lifecycle of buildings is equally critical. This priority extends beyond the residential sector to include various industries and businesses that are increasingly seeking to cut their annual energy costs while adopting the most efficient and sustainable methods.

Even though the adoption of these technologies is on the rise, there is still a considerable gap in research about their optimization and full potential for small-scale industries. Most existing studies have primarily examined residential or large-scale industrial applications, resulting in a significant lack of research specific to smaller industrial operations, which have unique operational and financial challenges.

3. Energy Storage Technologies

In recent years, the intensification of fossil energy consumption has been driven by rising population and industrial growth [37]. A crucial element in the long-term strategic planning of energy systems is the integration of energy storage technology with renewable sources like wind and solar [38]. This integration is essential for reducing reliance on fossil fuels and enhancing energy equity [39]. Energy storage technology plays a key role in addressing the challenges of intermittency and unpredictability associated with high levels of renewable energy [38]. Additionally, advancements in energy storage can further reduce the costs of renewable energy technologies [40]. The development of energy storage not only supports energy security and climate change management but also fosters job creation [41] and increases the overall value of energy systems, both now and in the future [42].

The adoption and effective use of cutting-edge technologies enable individuals and organizations to excel in today’s competitive socioeconomic landscape. Researchers are relentlessly working to enhance infrastructure and services, such as energy, healthcare, and transportation, to improve living standards. Despite these efforts, global energy demand continues to rise steadily. This demand is driven primarily by the power, industrial, transport, residential, and commercial sectors. The increase in energy consumption is largely due to population growth and intensified human activities [37]. In 2015, the world’s total energy consumption was estimated at 13,147 million tonnes of oil equivalent (MTOE), with fossil fuels comprising about 85% of this total [43].

According to global energy forecasts, the demand for primary energy sources is expected to increase by at least 50% by 2050 [44]. Given their finite nature, fossil fuels are unlikely to meet this rising energy demand sustainably in the future. Additionally, continued reliance on fossil fuels poses severe environmental risks, including GHG emissions, global warming, acid rain, and ozone layer depletion. For instance, fossil fuel–related carbon dioxide emissions were estimated at 32.3 billion metric tons in 2012 and are projected to reach 43.2 billion metric tons by 2040 [43].

The growing disparity between energy supply and demand, coupled with the rapid depletion of fossil fuels, presents a significant challenge for meeting future energy needs. To address this issue, three strategies can be considered: improving the efficiency of existing systems to their maximum potential, developing and utilizing alternative energy sources, including renewables, and enhancing energy storage solutions to use excess energy during times of need. However, improving system efficiency has inherent limits due to the second law of thermodynamics and is only applicable to systems that are not yet optimized.

In 2015, non-hydro renewable energy contributed a mere 3.3% to global energy needs, with projections indicating an increase to just 10% by 2035 [43]. Despite vigorous efforts by institutions and governments to boost renewable energy use, the gap between energy supply and demand continues to widen, necessitating exploration of additional alternatives.

The recent global shift toward replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy sources for power generation has made the development of energy storage systems a top priority for researchers in both academia and industry [45, 46]. The global integration of renewable energy sources, particularly solar PV systems, has accelerated due to their potential to reduce GHG emissions and decrease dependence on fossil fuels. Poland has made significant strides in adopting PV systems, leveraging its abundant solar resources. However, the growing need for energy storage systems is crucial to ensuring grid stability and fully harnessing the benefits of PV systems [47].

Energy storage is not just a supplementary feature but a cornerstone of integrating renewable energy sources into modern industrial production processes. As industries increasingly shift toward renewable energy, the need for reliable and flexible energy storage solutions becomes ever more critical. These systems allow for the capture and storage of excess energy produced during periods of high generation, such as on exceptionally sunny or windy days. Instead of allowing this surplus energy to go to waste, it can be stored and then deployed during times when energy production is lower, such as at night, during overcast conditions, or when the wind is calm [48].

This capability is transformative for industrial operations. First and foremost, it empowers companies to achieve a higher degree of energy independence. By relying on stored energy rather than being solely dependent on real-time generation or external energy supplies, businesses can ensure that their production processes remain continuous and uninterrupted, regardless of external conditions. This autonomy from external energy fluctuations enhances operational efficiency, as companies can better control when and how energy is used, leading to optimized production schedules and reduced operational costs [49].

Moreover, energy storage plays a crucial role in reducing GHG emissions. By efficiently utilizing energy generated from renewable sources, companies can decrease their reliance on fossil fuels, leading to a significant reduction in their carbon footprint [50–54]. This not only aligns with global sustainability goals but also improves the company’s reputation and compliance with increasingly stringent environmental regulations [55].

The stabilization of energy supplies through storage technology is also vital for managing the inherent variability of renewable energy sources. Solar and wind energy, while abundant and clean, are not always consistent; they are subject to natural fluctuations that can lead to periods of overproduction or scarcity. Energy storage systems, such as batteries or thermal storage units, act as buffers that absorb these fluctuations, providing a steady and reliable energy flow. This stability is crucial for maintaining consistent production levels in industrial settings, where sudden power drops can lead to costly downtime or damaged equipment [56].

Additionally, energy storage contributes to the broader stability of the power grid. By reducing the intensity and frequency of power fluctuations, these systems lessen the strain on the grid, thereby decreasing the risk of power outages. For production facilities, this enhanced grid stability translates into improved reliability and energy security, ensuring that manufacturing processes can continue uninterrupted even during peak demand periods or in the face of external energy supply issues [57].

Furthermore, the adoption of advanced energy storage technologies supports more sophisticated energy management strategies within industrial enterprises. For instance, companies can implement demand response programs, where stored energy is used during peak pricing hours or when grid supply is constrained, thereby reducing energy costs and optimizing resource allocation. This strategic use of stored energy also enables more precise and predictable production planning, as companies can forecast their energy needs with greater accuracy and adjust their operations accordingly [58].

In the broader context, the integration of energy storage solutions into industrial processes represents a significant step toward a more resilient and sustainable energy future [59]. As industries become more adept at managing and utilizing renewable energy, they contribute to the global effort to transition away from fossil fuels, reduce environmental impact, and combat climate change. By embracing energy storage, industries are not only future-proofing their operations but also playing a crucial role in building a more sustainable and stable energy landscape for all.

Common energy storage systems include flywheel energy storage, pumped storage, and electrochemical energy storage [60]. Among these, electrochemical energy storage is the most widely adopted due to its quick response time and flexible configuration. The topology of a PV energy storage access system is illustrated in Figure 1.

Energy storage systems are diverse in their design and functionality, with several key technologies being utilized depending on the specific needs of the industrial application. Lithium-ion batteries, for instance, are among the most widely adopted due to their high energy density, efficiency, and rapid response times. These batteries are particularly suitable for industries requiring frequent cycling, where energy is stored and discharged multiple times throughout the day. Flow batteries, such as vanadium redox flow batteries, offer another solution, providing longer life cycles and the ability to scale energy capacity independently of power capacity, making them ideal for large-scale energy storage in heavy industries [61].

Thermal energy storage systems, which store energy in the form of heat or cold, are also gaining traction, particularly in industries with significant heating or cooling demands. These systems can utilize excess energy to store thermal energy in materials like molten salts or chilled water, which can later be used to drive industrial processes or regulate building temperatures, thereby enhancing energy efficiency [62].

Another advanced technology is CAES is another option for industries looking for large-scale, long-duration storage. CAES systems store energy by compressing air into underground caverns or tanks and then releasing it to generate electricity when needed. This technology is particularly effective for balancing intermittent renewable energy sources like wind, as it can provide large-scale energy output over extended periods [63].

Each of these energy storage technologies comes with its own set of trade-offs in terms of efficiency, lifespan, scalability, and cost. However, when carefully selected and integrated, they can significantly enhance the resilience and sustainability of industrial energy systems, enabling companies to better navigate the complexities of renewable energy integration and energy market dynamics.

The choice of energy storage method typically depends on the specific application and various factors. These include the type of storage medium or material, the technique used, storage capacity, density, efficiency, and duration. Additional considerations are the rates of energy charge and discharge, the durability of the storage device, as well as initial and ongoing costs, and the environmental impact [43].

4. Methodology

The transition toward renewable energy systems in industrial sectors, particularly within manufacturing companies in the construction industry, represents a pivotal step in achieving sustainability and energy efficiency. This study adopts a simulation-based methodology to systematically analyze the potential impacts of integrating renewable energy sources, focusing primarily on solar energy technologies. The approach is designed to address critical challenges such as reducing GHG emissions, minimizing energy costs, and enhancing energy independence, while providing a structured framework for data-driven decision-making. The methodology involves constructing a detailed simulation model that incorporates the complexities of the company’s energy infrastructure. By modeling key variables such as energy consumption patterns, production processes, weather conditions, and market dynamics, the simulation enables the exploration of various scenarios. This analysis is crucial for understanding the multifaceted implications of renewable energy adoption, including operational, financial, and environmental dimensions. Through iterative simulations, the study seeks to optimize energy solutions tailored to the company’s unique needs, balancing the trade-offs between initial investments and long-term benefits. Furthermore, the methodology integrates validation processes and stakeholder engagement, ensuring that the findings are both accurate and actionable. By aligning simulation outcomes with strategic business objectives, this approach provides a comprehensive roadmap for implementing renewable energy solutions that are both sustainable and profitable.

To achieve precise and reliable results, the study utilizes PV ^∗SOL, a professional software tool for the dynamic simulation of PV systems. PV ^∗SOL enables detailed modeling of solar energy production, considering key factors such as geographical location, solar irradiance, shading effects, system components (PV modules, inverters, and batteries), and energy consumption profiles. The software incorporates real-world weather data and advanced calculation methods to estimate system performance over time, allowing for accurate financial assessments, including return on investment, payback period, and levelized cost of electricity (LCOE). Additionally, PV ^∗SOL facilitates comparative analysis of different PV system configurations, enabling the identification of the most efficient and cost-effective energy solutions for the company.

The implementation of renewable energy sources in a manufacturing company within the construction industry involves the comprehensive simulation and analysis of scenarios aimed at integrating advanced energy technologies and infrastructure. This process employs a robust modeling framework to predict the performance of energy systems under varying conditions, such as the incorporation of renewable energy sources, fluctuations in energy demand, and market dynamics. The simulation is designed to encompass critical variables, including energy consumption patterns, production outputs, GHG emissions, meteorological data, energy market prices, and relevant legal regulations. By leveraging this model, simulations explore the implications of different configurations to estimate the potential costs, benefits, and broader impacts of such transitions.

As a result, this methodological approach serves as a critical decision support tool, enabling organizations to comprehensively evaluate the repercussions of adopting renewable energy solutions. By facilitating data-driven assessments, it empowers companies to make informed strategic decisions that align with sustainability goals and operational efficiency.

Figure 2 showcases the monthly energy consumption of a representative construction company for the year 2023. The data includes energy usage quantified in kilowatt-hours and expressed in financial terms as net and gross costs in Polish złoty (PLN). Total energy consumption for 2023 amounted to 21,189 kWh, reflecting an upward trend from prior years (20,607 kWh in 2022 and 17,435 kWh in 2021). Corresponding net electricity costs in 2023 totaled 29,204.43 PLN, with gross costs reaching 35,921.46 PLN. This dataset forms the foundation for conducting simulations, allowing precise estimation of potential economic and operational benefits from renewable energy adoption. By evaluating these figures, simulations can optimize energy configurations tailored to the company’s unique requirements.

4.1. Simulation Setup and Data Collection

The study utilized a simulation model to assess the integration of renewable energy sources within a construction manufacturing company. The simulation framework was designed to analyze the impact of adopting solar energy technologies on the company’s energy consumption, operational costs, and GHG emissions.

The simulation process followed a structured approach, as outlined in Figure 3. It began with analyzing the current energy system, including data collection on energy consumption, production processes, and existing infrastructure. This provided a baseline for evaluating the potential benefits of renewable energy integration.

Next, key objectives were defined, focusing on increasing the share of renewable energy, reducing CO₂ emissions, and optimizing costs. Based on these objectives, expected outcomes were assessed, such as projected energy savings and improvements in environmental performance.

The model also incorporated risk assessment, considering external factors like variable weather conditions and financial constraints. This allowed for the optimization of implementation strategies, ensuring realistic and efficient integration of PV technology.

To enhance accuracy, the simulation results were validated by comparing them with initial assumptions. The collected data were then used to refine the strategy and support stakeholder collaboration, ensuring alignment with industry standards and regulatory requirements.

The structured approach helped ensure a comprehensive and reliable assessment of renewable energy adoption, integrating both technical and economic considerations.

5. Case Study

Below, a proposal for the implementation of a renewable energy system in the company will be presented, including a detailed cost estimate, technical data of the planned installation, the expected payback period, and an analysis of the degradation of PV panels over the studied period. This proposal aims not only to enhance the company’s energy efficiency but also to significantly reduce operational costs and decrease the company’s carbon footprint.

Table 1 provides a detailed list of components for the PV panel system to be installed in the company. The system includes 56 PV modules, a 15-degree south-facing ballast structure installed horizontally, a hybrid inverter, solar wiring, AC and DC surge protectors, an AC overcurrent disconnect switch, and connectors, as well as components responsible for potential equalization and grounding (up to five ground rods). Additionally, the table includes costs for transportation and installation, electrical measurements and system testing, configuration and commissioning of the installation, and preparation of complete connection documentation for the microinstallation.

The cost estimate for the entire PV installation has been calculated at 88,826.94 PLN net. Including the 23% VAT, which amounts to 20,430.20 PLN, the total gross cost of the installation is 109,257.14 PLN. This amount covers all necessary components, installation services, and documentation preparation, making this investment a comprehensive renewable energy solution for the company.

Table 2 provides detailed information on the electrical parameters of the PV system. The table presents both electrical parameters under standard test conditions (STCs), which include irradiance of 1000 W/m², cell temperature of 25°C, and air mass AM 1.5, as well as parameters under nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT), where irradiance is 800 W/m², ambient temperature is 20°C, and wind speed is 1 m/s. Key data in the table include maximum power (P_MAX), operating voltage (V_MPP), operating current (I_MPP), open-circuit voltage (V_OC), short-circuit current (I_SC), and module efficiency. These details allow for a precise assessment of the system’s performance and efficiency under various operational conditions.

The mechanical parameters of the PV system are presented in Table 3. The table includes information about the type of PV cells, the number of cells, module dimensions, and weight, as well as specifications for the front and rear glass and the module frame.

The temperature indicators and limit values for the PV system are presented in Table 4. It includes data on NOCT, temperature coefficients for maximum power (P_MAX), open-circuit voltage (V_OC), and short-circuit current (I_SC). Additionally, the table includes limit values such as the operating temperature range, maximum system voltage, and maximum current protection.

The entire project of the proposed PV installation was developed based on a detailed analysis of the roof project of the manufacturing hall of the examined company, as shown in Figure 4. This analysis included a structural assessment of the roof, its orientation, tilt angle, and available areas that could be used for the installation of solar panels. The evaluation also considered aspects related to the roof’s load-bearing capacity, the layout of the electrical installation, and any potential obstacles that could impact the system’s efficiency. The thorough examination of the roof design allowed for the optimal configuration of the PV system, ensuring maximum use of the available space and optimization of energy efficiency.

The assumptions for calculating the payback period of the PV installation are presented in Table 5. The table includes key data necessary for analyzing the investment’s profitability, such as the total gross investment amount of 109,257.14 PLN and the energy sale price set at 0.41 PLN per kWh. It also takes into account the annual electricity production estimated at 23,500 kWh and the maximum module degradation of 0.56%. Additionally, the table provides information on energy consumption in the zone amounting to 21,200 kWh, the gross energy purchase price of 1.70 PLN per kWh, and the annual energy price increase of 0.03 PLN. The table also includes the self-consumption rate in zone I, which is 65%. These data are crucial for accurately calculating the payback period of the investment and assessing the economic efficiency of the planned PV installation. The calculated LCOE for the PV system is 0.33 PLN/kWh, assuming a 5% discount rate and annual operational costs at 1% of CAPEX. This value represents the total cost of electricity production over the system’s 25-year lifespan, accounting for capital expenditures, operational expenses, and the time value of money.

Figure 5 illustrates the degradation process of PV panels, which has been incorporated into the simulation model for implementing renewable energy sources in the analyzed construction company. PV panel degradation refers to the gradual decline in their performance over time, caused by factors such as material aging, weather conditions, and the intensity of solar radiation. The simulation uses a specific degradation rate to more accurately reflect the real operating conditions of PV installations, allowing for a more precise estimation of long-term energy efficiency and the profitability of investing in renewable energy sources for the examined company.

Table 6 presents the cumulative savings achieved over 25 years of operating the PV installation, based on the simulation conducted for the examined company. It accounts for panel degradation over time and other key factors affecting the system’s efficiency. The table includes data on annual energy production in kilowatt-hours, current energy consumption by the company, energy drawn from the grid, and the resulting savings. The simulation provides these parameters for each year, allowing for a detailed analysis of changes in system performance and the cumulative financial benefits derived from using renewable energy sources.

Figure 6 displays the profitability chart of the PV installation, developed based on the detailed data presented earlier in the article. This chart illustrates the dynamics of the return on investment for the PV system, considering factors such as initial costs, variable operating costs, energy yields, and the assumed model of panel degradation over time. Based on the simulation and analysis of the available data, the payback period for the investment is 3 years, indicating that after this period, the installation starts to generate real savings for the company.

Additionally, the chart and simulation results indicate that over 25 years, the examined construction company will be able to save 767,479.48 PLN due to the investment in renewable energy sources. These savings result from reduced dependence on grid electricity and stable electricity production by the PV panels despite the accounted degradation.

An additional factor that positively impacts savings and the efficiency of the entire system is the use of an energy storage system. This storage allows for the accumulation of excess energy produced by the PV installation, which increases self-consumption and reduces the demand for grid electricity, contributing to further savings over the long term.

Table 7 presents the components of the energy storage system proposed for the examined company. It includes the following elements: one energy storage unit and one battery controller, as well as services such as transportation and installation, electrical measurements and system testing, and system configuration and commissioning. The net cost of the entire system is 37,035.02 PLN, while the VAT amount (23%) is 8,518.05 PLN, resulting in a total gross price of 45,553.07 PLN.

Table 8 provides detailed technical data for the proposed energy storage system for the examined company. The table includes information about the battery modules, each with a capacity of 2.56 kWh, a voltage of 102.4 V, and a weight of 38 kg. The system uses four modules, resulting in a total usable energy of 10.24 kWh. The maximum continuous output current is 25 A, while the peak output current reaches 50 A for up to 3 s. The nominal system voltage is 409.6 V, with an operational voltage range from 320 to 460.8 V. The unit dimensions are 1228 mm in height, 585 mm in width, and 298 mm in depth, with a total weight of 167 kg. The system operates within a temperature range of −10°C to +50°C. The battery technology used is lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄), which does not contain cobalt. The system’s round-trip efficiency is at least 96%.

In summary, the discussed section of the article presents the results of the simulation for implementing a PV system in the examined company and the benefits of integrating an energy storage system. The simulation demonstrated that the PV installation yields significant savings, with a payback period of only 3 years and total savings reaching 767,479.48 PLN over 25 years. The inclusion of an energy storage system further enhances the efficiency of the setup by enabling better management of the produced energy. The energy storage system increases self-consumption of the electricity generated by the PV panels and reduces the need to purchase energy from the grid, resulting in additional savings and optimization of the company’s operational costs.

6. Discussion

The analysis indicates significant benefits from implementing PV systems and energy storage in the construction sector. The short payback period, considerable financial savings, and environmental and operational advantages underscore the feasibility and effectiveness of these solutions. Despite challenges related to initial costs and spatial requirements, integrating renewable energy sources and storage systems offers long-term benefits and supports the sustainable development of the industry. In the future, further technological advancements and regulatory support may make these solutions even more accessible and efficient, facilitating continued optimization of energy strategies in the sector.

7. Conclusions

Despite the growing awareness of sustainable practices, conventional construction techniques continue to pose challenges in terms of energy efficiency and environmental impact. One of the most significant issues is the high carbon footprint associated with traditional building materials and fossil fuel–dependent construction processes. The reliance on energy-intensive materials, such as concrete and steel, contributes significantly to global CO₂ emissions. Additionally, conventional construction methods are often characterized by energy inefficiency, particularly in terms of building design and insulation. Many older buildings lack proper insulation, energy-efficient lighting, and advanced HVAC systems, resulting in high operational energy demands. This inefficiency extends to construction processes, where outdated machinery and reliance on diesel-powered equipment further increase energy consumption. Another major challenge is the limited adoption of renewable energy technologies in construction. While renewable energy integration is gaining traction, many existing buildings and infrastructure projects remain dependent on conventional energy sources. The transition to sustainable construction practices is further hindered by regulatory and financial barriers. High initial investment costs, lack of financial incentives, and complex regulatory frameworks often discourage smaller construction firms from adopting renewable energy and energy-efficient technologies.

Looking forward, ongoing technological advancements and supportive regulatory frameworks will be crucial for further reducing costs and improving the efficiency of renewable energy and storage systems. Companies must remain informed about these developments to effectively adapt and optimize their energy strategies. The findings suggest that continuous investment in these technologies will be essential for achieving long-term sustainability and operational excellence in the construction industry. Overall, the implementation of renewable energy systems positions companies to thrive in a changing energy landscape, supporting both environmental and economic goals.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Funding

This research received no external funding.