Full Access
IMMUNOTHERAPY, INCLUDING GENE THERAPY, FOR METASTATIC MELANOMA
Michael G. E. O'Rourke,
Christopher W. Schmidt,
Thomas R. O‘rourke,
Kay A. O. Ellem,
Corresponding Author
Michael G. E. O'Rourke
*Mater Adult Public Hospital, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Royal Brisbane Hospital
1 Morris Towers, 149 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane, Qld 4000, Australia.Search for more papers by this authorChristopher W. Schmidt
†Queensland Cancer Fund Research Unit, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Royal Brisbane Hospital
Search for more papers by this authorThomas R. O‘rourke
‡Department of Pathology, Medical School of the University of Queensland, Herston, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorKay A. O. Ellem
†Queensland Cancer Fund Research Unit, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Royal Brisbane Hospital
Search for more papers by this authorMichael G. E. O'Rourke,
Christopher W. Schmidt,
Thomas R. O‘rourke,
Kay A. O. Ellem,
Corresponding Author
Michael G. E. O'Rourke
*Mater Adult Public Hospital, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Royal Brisbane Hospital
1 Morris Towers, 149 Wickham Terrace, Brisbane, Qld 4000, Australia.Search for more papers by this authorChristopher W. Schmidt
†Queensland Cancer Fund Research Unit, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Royal Brisbane Hospital
Search for more papers by this authorThomas R. O‘rourke
‡Department of Pathology, Medical School of the University of Queensland, Herston, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorKay A. O. Ellem
†Queensland Cancer Fund Research Unit, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Royal Brisbane Hospital
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
Current standard therapy for distant metastatic melanoma is ineffective and often compromises the quality of a patient's life. Immunotherapy is briefly reviewed in relation to its many forms: from local non-specific to the more recent specific vaccines, including those using specific melanoma peptides (e.g. from the proteins encoded by melanoma-associated gene (MAGE)) and those involving genetically transduced autologous melanoma cells using retroviral vectors in vitro. The mode of action of genetically transduced melanoma cells incorporating the granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) gene (GVAX) is presented as a paradigm for cytokine-mediated strategies. Trials of GVAX and other cytokine gene strategies are under way in Brisbane, Boston and Amsterdam, and some interim perspectives on the clinical outcomes and immunological mechanisms involved are sketched. Some of the compounding problems in immunotherapeutic strategies for cancer are identified, and possible adjunct manoeuvres for overcoming them are discussed.
REFERENCES
- 1 Cancer in Queensland—Incidence and Mortality, 1990. Queensland Cancer Registry, Queensland Department of Health, Brisbane , 1990.
- 2 McLennan R., Green AC, McLeod GRC et al. Increasing incidence of cutaneous melanoma in Queensland Australia. J. Natl Cancer. Inst. 1992; 84: 1427–32.
- 3 Monson JRT. Malignant melanoma: A plague of our times. Br. J. Surg. 1989; 76: 997–8.
- 4 Giles GG, Armstrong BK, Burton RC et al. Has mortality from melanoma stopped rising in Australia Analysis of trends between 1931 and 1994.
- 5 BMJ 1996; 312: 1121–5.
- 6 O'Rourke MGE, Altmann C. Melanoma recurrence after excision: Is a wide margin justified. Ann. Surg. 1993; 217: 2–5.
- 7 O'Rourke MGE, Louie AE. Metastatic melanoma. Aust. N.Z. J. Surg. 1982; 52: 154–8.
- 8 Balch CM, Soong S-J, Murad TM, Ingalls AL, Maddox WA. A multifactorial analysis of melanoma. Ann. Surg. 1981; 193: 377–88.
- 9 O'Rourke MGE. Metastases in malignant melanoma. In: AJJ Emmett, MGE O'Rourke (eds). Malignant Skin Tumours, 2nd edn. Edinburgh : Churchill Livingstone, 1991; 96.
- 10 Morton DL, Foshag LJ, Hoon DSB et al. Prolongation of survival in metastatic melanoma after specific active immuno-therapy with a new polyvalent melanoma vaccine. Ann. Surg. 1992; 216: 463–82.
- 11 Balch C., Soong SJ, Murad TM, Smith JW, Maddox WA, Durant JR. A multifactorial analysis of melanoma. IV. Prognostic factors in 200 melanoma patients with distant metastases (stage III). J. Clin. Oncol. 1983; 1: 126–34.
- 12 Coley WB. Contribution to the knowledge of sarcoma. Ann. Surg. 1891; 14: 199–220.
- 13
Coley WB.
The treatment of malignant tumors by repeated inoculations of erysipelas; with a report of original cases.
Am. J. Med. Sci.
1893; 105: 487–511.
10.1097/00000441-189305000-00001 Google Scholar
- 14 Shear MJ. Chemical treatment of tumours. Reactions of mice with primary subcutaneous tumour to injection of haemorrhagic producing polysaccharide. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 1944; 4: 461–76.
- 15 Carswell EA, Old LJ, Kassel S. An endotoxin-induced serum factor that causes necrosis of tumours. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 1975; 72: 3666–70.
- 16 Currie GA. Eighty years of immunotherapy: A review of immunological methods used for the treatment of human cancer. Br. J. Cancer 1972; 26: 141–53.
- 17 Fisher RI, Terry WD, Hodes RJ et al. Adjuvant immunotherapy or chemotherapy for malignant melanoma. Surg. Clin. North Am. 1981; 61: 1267–77.
- 18
Clunie GJA,
Gough IR,
Drury M. et al.
A trial of Imidazol Carboxamide in disseminated melanoma: Clinical immunological results.
Cancer
1980; 46: 475–9.
10.1002/1097-0142(19800801)46:3<475::AID-CNCR2820460310>3.0.CO;2-1 CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
- 19 Rosenberg SA, Lotze MJ, Yang JC et al. Prospective randomized trial of IL2 alone or in conjunction with LAKS for treatment of patients with advanced cancer. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 1993; 316: 898–05.
- 20 Grimm EA, Robb RJ, Roth JA. et al. Lymphokine-activated killer cell phenomenon. J. Exp. Med. 1983; 158: 1356–61.
- 21 Kelso A., Clouston A. Cytokines in Transplantation. Austin , Texas : RG Landes Co., 1996.
- 22 Lotze MT, Matory YL, Rayner AA et al. Clinical effects and toxicity of interleukin-2 in patients with cancer. Cancer 1986; 58: 2164–12.
- 23 Kirkwood JM, Strawderman MH, Ernstoff MS et al. Adjuvant therapy of high-risk resected cutaneous melanoma: The Eastern Co-operative Oncology Group Trial EST 1684. J. Clin. Oncol. 1996; 14: 7–17.
- 24 Meyskens FL, Kopecky K., Samson H. et al. Recombinant human Interferon-gamma: Adverse effects in high risk stage I and stage II cutaneous malignant melanoma. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 1990; 82: 1071.
- 25 Renard N., Lianard D., Lespagnard L. et al. Early endothelium and polymorphonuclear activation and polymorphic nuclear cell invasion precede specific necrosis of human melanoma and sarcoma treated by intravascular high-dose tumour necrosis factor alfa (rTNF alpha). Int. J. Cancer 1994; 57: 656–63.
- 26 Berd D. Effects of corynebacterium on immunity. Pharmacol. Ther. 1978; 2: 373–96.
- 27 Morton DL, Hunt KK, Bauer RR et al. Clinical application using intralesional therapy. In: VT De Vita, S. Hillman, SA Rosenberg (eds). Biological Therapy of Cancer. Philadelphia : JB Lippincott, 1991.
- 28 de Kruif J., van der Vuurst de Vries L., Cilenti L. et al. New perspectives on recombinant human antibodies. Immunol. Today 1996; 17: 453–5.
- 29 Schlom J. Antibodies in cancer therapy. In: VT De Vita, S. Hellman, SA Rosenberg (eds). Biologic Therapy in Cancer. Philadelphia : JB Lippincott, 1991; 481–6.
- 30 Mitchell MS. Active specific immunotherapy of melanoma. Br. Med. Bull. 1995; 51: 631–46.
- 31 Elshami AA, Kucharczuk JC, Stekman DH. The role of immunosuppression in the efficacy of cancer gene therapy using adenovirus transfer of the herpes simplex thymidine kinase gene. Ann. Surg. 1995; 222: 290–310.
- 32 Marshall E. Gene therapy: Growing pains. Science 1995; 269: 1050–5.
- 33 Grossman M., Raper SE, Kozarsky K. et al. Successful ex vivo gene therapy directed to liver in a patient with familial hyper-cholesterolaemia. Nat. Genet. 1994; 6: 335–41.
- 34 Freeman SM, Ramesh R., Marrogi AJ. Immune system in suicide-gene therapy. Lancet 1997; 349: 2–3.
- 35 Mulligan RC. Gene transfer and gene therapy: principles, prospects and perspective. In: J. Lindsten, U. Petterson (eds). Etiology of Human Disease at the DNA Level. USA: Raven NY, 1991; 143–89.
- 36 Mulligan RC. The basic science of gene therapy. Science 1993; 260: 926–32.
- 37 Marcel T. Report of TMC Development. Paris, France: 1996.
- 38 Donahue RE, Kessler SW, Bodine D. et al. Helper virus induced Tcell lymphoma in nonhuman primates after retro viral mediated gene transfer. J. Exp. Med. 1992; 176: 1125–35.
- 39 Hurford RK, Dranoff G., Mulligan RC, Tepper RI. Gene therapy of metastatic cancer by in vivo retroviral gene targeting. Nat. Genet. 1995; 10: 430–5.
- 40 Nathanson L. Spontaneous regression of malignant melanoma. A review of the literature. Monogr. Natl Cancer Inst. 1976; 44: 67–76.
- 41 Mackensen A., Ferradini L., Carcelain G. et al. Evidence for in situ amplification of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes with anti-tumour activity in the human regressive melanoma. Cancer Res. 1993; 53: 3569–73.
- 42 Ettinghausen SE, Rosenberg SA. Immunotherapy and gene therapy of cancer. Adv. Surg. 1995; 28: 223–45.
- 43 Dranoff G., Jaffe A., Lasenby P. et al. Vaccination with irradiated tumour cells engineered to secrete GM-CSF stimulates potent specific long acting tumour immunity. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 1993; 90: 3539–43.
- 44 Schmidt W., Schweighoffer T., Herbst E. et al. Cancer vaccines: The interleukin 2 dosage effect. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 1995; 92: 4711–14.
- 45 Clark EA, Ledbetter JA. How B & T cells talk to each other. Nature 1994; 367: 425–8.
- 46 Steele DJ, Laufer TM, Smiley ST et al. Two levels of help for B cell alloantibody production. J. Exp. Med. 1996; 183: 699–703.
- 47 Mossman TR, Coffman RL. Heterogeneity of cytokine secretion patterns and functions of helper T cells. Adv. Immunol. 1989; 46: 111–47.
- 48 Hersey AP. Active immunotherapy with viral lysates of micro-metastases following surgical removal of high risk melanoma. World J. Surg. 1992; 16: 251–60.
- 49 Boon T., Cerottini JC, van der Eynde B., van der Bruggen P., van Pel A. Tumour antigens recognised by T lymphocytes. Ann. Rev. Immunol. 1994; 12: 337–65.
- 50 van der Bruggen P., Traversai C., Chomez P. et al. A gene encoding an antigen recognised by cytolytic T lymphocytes in human melanoma. Science 1991; 254: 1643–4.
- 51 Hersey P. Melanoma peptides as vaccines. Today's Life Sci. 1996; 8: 34–8.
- 52 Grabbe S., Beisseert S., Schwarz T. et al. Dendritic cells as initiators of tumor immune responses: A possible strategy for tumor immunotherapy Immunol. Today 1995; 16: 117–21.
- 53 Marchand M., Weynants P., Rankin E. et al. Tumour regression responses in melanoma patients treated with a peptide encoded by gene MAGE-3. Int. J. Cancer 1995; 63: 883–5.
- 54 Rosenberg SA. The immunotherapy and gene therapy of cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 1992; 10: 180–99.
- 55 Berd D. Immunization with haptenized autologous tumour cells induces inflammation of human melanoma metastases. Cancer Res. 1991; 51: 2731–4.
- 56 Jaffee E., Dranof G., Cohen L. et al. High efficiency gene transfer into primary human tumor explants without cell selection. Cancer Res. 1993; 53: 2221–6.
- 57 Ellem KAO, O'Rourke MGE, Johnson GR et al. A Case report: Immune responses and clinical course of the first human use of granulocyte/macrophage-colony stimulating factor-transduced autologous melanoma cells for immunotherapy. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 1997; 44: 10–20.
- 58 Gukry J., Adorini L. Dendritic cells are the most efficient in presenting endogenous naturally processed self-epitopes to class II-restricted T cells. J. Immunol. 1995; 154: 526–44.
- 59 Herr W., Wolfel T., Heike M. et al. Frequency analysis of tumour-reactive cytotoxic T lymphocytes in peripheral blood of a melanoma patient vaccinated with autologous tumour cells. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 1994; 39: 93–9.
- 60 Grabbe S., Beissert S., Schwartz T. et al, Dendritic cells as initiators of tumor immune responses: A possible strategy for tumor immunotherapy Immunol. Today 1995; 16: 117–21.
- 61 Mayordomo JI, Zorina T., Storkus WJ et al. Bone marrow-derived dendritic cells pulsed with synthetic tumour peptides elicit protective and therapeutic antitumour immunity. Nat. Med. 1995; 1: 1297–1302.
- 62 Young JW, Lnaba K. Dendritic cells as adjuvants for class I major histocompatibility complex-restricted antitumor immunity. J. Exp. Med. 1996; 183: 7–11.
- 63 Loeb LA. Microsatellite instability: Marker of a mutator phenotype in cancer. Cancer Res. 1994; 54: 5059–63.
- 64 Tomlinson IPM, Novelli MR, Bodmer WF. The mutation rate and cancer. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 1996; 93: 14800–3.
- 65 Ferrone S., Marincola FM. Loss of HLA class I antigens by melanoma cells: Molecular mechanisms, functional significance and clinical reserve. Immunol. Today 1995; 16: 487–94.
- 66 Chen Q., Daniel V., Maher DW et al. Production of IL-10 by melanoma cells: Examination of its role in immunosuppression mediated by melanoma. Int. J. Cancer 1994; 56: 755–60.
- 67 Hahne M., Rimoldi D., Schroter M. et al. Melanoma cell expression of Fas (Apo-UCD95) ligand: Implications for tumor immune escape. Science 1996; 274: 1363–6.
- 68 Ellem KAO, Schmidt CW, O'Rourke MGE et al. The labyrinthine ways of cancer immunotherapy: T cell, tumour cell encounter: ‘How do I lose thee? Let me count the ways.’ Adv. Cancer Res. (in press).
